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OXi'Olffi, MD.

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* ''- Annual Convention, June 2-3, 194-3

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8032

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 1943
ANNUAL ADDRESo Ox^ PRESIDENT

By Joseph B. Glancy, President

National Shellfisheries Association convenes again in Philadelphia during our
second v/ar year. There was some doubt as to the advisability of meeting this year
due to travel restriction and the curtailment of all but necessary war activities.
The program committee decided, hov/ever, that National Shellfisheries Association,
representing as it does an essential industry, had full justification to proceed
with the regular annual meetings, particularly since our agenda mostly deals with
subjects pertinent to effective v/ar effort.

1. Restriction of Scientific Research

It is regrettable, but at the same time inevitable, that much of the scientific
research activity of the members of National Shellfisheries Association will be
placed in abeyance until the end of the v;ar, unless, of course, the research concerns
itself with problems, the solution of vshich contributes directly to more quickly
winning the v/ar. Note, for example, that manj'" of the able, experienced research
investigators of the U. S. Fish and Vv'ildlife Service have been forced recently to
relinquish scientific studies to assume the administrative details of the Office of
Coordinator of Fisheries.

Likev/ise, another scientific casualty this year v/as the cancellation of the
Symposium on the Food and Feeding of Oysters, v/hich v/e planned at last year's sessions,
v/orked on during the year, and had in form to present this year. Great credit goes
to Drs. Nelson, Loosanoff, and Galstoff in offering to contribute. The subject is of
importance and hope is expressed that postponement v/ill not be unduly prolonged.
'When one considers that no biologist can describe and explain adequately the exact
conditions necessary for good grov/th and fattening in oysters it becomes apparent that
lamentable gaps exist in our knov/ledge of oyster ciilture.

2. Publication of Convention Papers

It may be recalled that in my address last year, I called attention to the
desirability of obtaining v/ider distribution of our convention addresses. Dr. Galstoff
acting for the committee, recommended use of the so-called planographic method, since
regular printing v/as out of the question. The estimated cost vfas $500 for 500 copies,
v/hich T;ould have just about denuded our treasury. I sounded this proposition among
the officers and some of the members, and the consensus of opinion was not to use
this planographic method, chiefly on account of cost. Consequently, the 19A2 National
Shellfisheries Association papers \/ere mimeographed as usual and sent to all members.
Extra copies v/ere made and distributed to interested parties and institutions.
Our secretary, Major Messer, deserves credit for faithfully accomplishing this. Also,
we are grateful to Dr. Galstoff 's committee for the investigation of the methods of
reproduction of the National Shellfisheries Association convention papers. As a
general policy, hov/ever, it behooves the Association to secure the v/idest distribution
of its annual proceedings.

Clancy's Address — Page 2

3. Howard Y'J. Beach

It is with sorrow that I annoiince the great loss to the National Shellfisheries
Association in the death last ivinter of Howard \'1. Beach, our treasurer for the last
twelve years. It was during Mr. Beach's presidency that the National Shellfisheries
Association was reorganized from the National Ajjfiociation of Shellfish Commissioners.
A great believer in scientific research, Mr. Euach's generous and intelligent promo-
tion of its application to the shellfish inducjtry remains unsurpassed by any indi-
vidual interested in the advancement of oyster culture. Fortunately for National
Shellfisheries Association, Mr. J. Richards Nelson accepted the responsibilities of
filling the unexpired term of Mr. Beach as Treasiurer.

4. Greater Utilization of Marine Resources

My report for this year would not be complete if I did not comment on the acute
development since omt last meetings of an exceedingly important trend towards greater
utilization of the lesser known marine species inhabiting our oyster beds and their
vicinity. There is opportunity here to not only contribute to the wartime food
effort but to popularize and establish permanently the production and distribution
of valuable marine resources. To mention a few, v/e have among the shellfish species
mussels, conchs, and a variety of clams; and of the finny fish sv/ellfish, sea robins,
and virhiting, so called trash fish, Avhich in the past have practically been ignored,
yet v.'hen properly handled offer perfectly nutritious and highly palatable sea food.
These are particularly of value because they are protein foods, and dietary economists
are stressing continually the necessity of supplementing with these the country's
supply, vifhich tends toward a preponderance of the carbohydrate constituents. Some
of the scientists and engineers among our membership are and have been contributing
essential data for the exploitation of these virtually unknorm sea foods, but all vdll
be of but little avail, unless first, methods of preparation for market are entirely
adequate, and secondly, the wholesaler and retailer are given every encouragement to
distribute them. Consequently, I would suggest that the convention consider the ad-
visability of recommending to the Office of Price Administration that no ceilings be
placed on or no ration points necessary for the sale of these little knovm fishery
products, because there is but little experience available upon v/hich to base costs
of the properly packed article, and price ceilingH will discourage the all-important
v.'holesaler from venturing to handle 'the new products.

In closing, I wish to vocge all the scientists and engineers engaged in shellfish
research nnd development to maintain, if at all possible, and if they do not inter-
fere v;ith the immediate war effort, the long range projects started before the war.
li'ftien victory comes, these studies will be of inestimable value in enabling the shell-
fish industry to obtain the knov/ledge v/hereby it can progress and grov/.

United S"oa.tes Department of the Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service

Fishery Leaflet 22

Chicago, 111.

-;;-

June 19U3

INCRSASIIiq THE PRODUCTION OF OYSmS ANp
OTHi^R 3HSLLfISH IN THE UNITED STATEb

3y Paul S. Gaits off, In Char,^e,
Shellfishery Investigations, Division of Fishery Biolory

(Revision of an address presented at the annual Fjoeting of the National
Shellfisheries Association, June 2-3, l?l+3, PhiL-j,delphia. )

Contents

Page

Decline of oyster fishery. ... 1

Legislative i.ieasures [j.

Natural oyster beds and conser-
vation T

Planting of shells and seed. . . 6

Productivity of oyster bottons . 7

Cultivation of oysters 8

Page

Management of public grounds
Seed oysters . . .
Control of enemies
Pollution ....
Conclusion. . . .

11
12
13

13

DECLINE OF THE OYSTER FISHERY

A hundred years of practical experience has demonstrated that the yield
of the shellfishery can be materially increased by farming or cultivation.
Nevertheless, production of oysters in this country during the past j-ears
has been declining. Taking as an illustration the figures for the last few-
years for which complete statistical data are available, we find that the
total yield declined from 9^.6 million pounds of oyster-meat in 1937 to 93.1
in 1939 and 89. U in 19U0. Even the substantial growth of Pacific Coast oyster
production from 7.8 to 10.8 million pounds during these years was not enough
to counterbalance the general trend. Statistics for 19hO show that more than
fifty percent of oyster meats, namely, I4.8.7 million pounds, were produced
on privately-oTmed or -leased bottoLis as compared with I1O.68 million pounds
obtained from public reefs .

/

The present yield is much smaller than that gathered years ago. Thus,
in I89O-92 the total production of oysters T^as probably not less than
182.8 million pounds 01 meat-"- (table) and Maryland alcne contributed at
least 70.8 million pounds ^ or about 79 percent of the total amount pro-
duced in 19)40. A steady decline in oyster production to approximately
half of that of ^0 years ago is due primarily to the system of free fishing
under which the full utilizatiorx of our oyster grounds is impossible.
Pollution of inshore waters by industrial wastes and domestic se'Vfage is
another factor in the decrease, resulting in the closing of productive
grounds by Public Health authorities, or, in certain instances, the destruc-
tion of the shellfish themselves by accjiaulation of toxic or decomposing
matters .

The total acreage of oyster bottoms in our coastal v.'^t^rs can be
estimated only approximately. According to present computations, there
are in the territorial waters of the United States about l,l428,500 acres
officially designated as oyster-producing bottoms. A small proportion of
this area, not exceeding 185,000 acres of privately-leased or -ovmed bot-
toms, produces 5U.? percent of the total oj^;ter crop. There is, thus, a
very great difference in the productivity of culti'/ated and natural oyster
beds. One must remember, howe'/er, that tliere ai a considerable areas of
privately-leased grounds vfhich, for various reasons, are not cultivated
and that many of the natural oyster reefs or roc-.-cs at present include areas
that are totally devoid of oysters and, therefore, do not contribute to
the fishery. In many States, their utilization for oyster farming is im-
possible, hovfever, because of legislation i^hich prohibits the leasing of
natural beds .

The state of depletion of the public oyster grounds can be illustrated
by several examples. The best one is found in Georgia. According to Drake,
Coast and Geodetic Survey Bulletin No. 19 (I89O), there \Tere Td.thin the
waters of tha.t State 30,000 acres suitable for oyster cultivation. In
1908 these produced l,U!i6,100 bushels of these shellfish. In 1923, the
production had dropped to 2[|.5',762 bushels and, in 1937, "'''as only 28,872
bushels increasing, however, in 1939, to 78,133 bushels. In 1937, Georgia
oysters were the poorest in the country, yielding only 2.7^ poimds of meat
per bushel. Thus, the oyster fishery in Georgia almost ceased to exist and
the canneries ".Thich still operate in the State a,re dependent on supplies
from^ South Carolina. No outside causes, as floods, dredging of navigable
waters, firiing--in of bays and estuaries with dredged material, can be
blamed for the destruction of the industry i.'hich once brought more than
$300,000 annually to the Georgia oysterraen. The principal cause of this
decline vras the system of raanagem.ent, or rather, mismanagement of the natural
resource, under vmich destructive methods of harvesting v;ere net only toler-
ated but encouraged. The responsibility rests equally with the cannsrs who
were buying cluster-oysters and who never bothered to return small, under-
sized individuals tc the grounds, and v/ith the State government which made
no effort to protect the natural supply of oysters by establishing spavming
reserves, enforcing cull laws, planting cultch, or employing similar conser-
vation mea.sures.

-i;-Computations ivere made by using the factors of yields for 1939 given
in "Fisheries Industries of the United States, 19''4l", Adniinistrative Report
No. hi, published by the Bureau of Fisheries, now a part of the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service.

Production of Oysters in the United Statos

in 1890-1892 and in 1939 in pounds of

oyster neat

M)

states

Pounds of rr.eat
per State-bushel
1939

Total pounds

of r:;c;it

1890-92

1939

Massachusetts

6.57

361,106

269,300

Rhode Island

7.00

1,210,615

/ 2,313,500

Connecticut !

7.63

l):v303,528

5,222,200

Nevf York

7.^0

1:^, -32,965

i 6^272,700

New Jersey

6.05

15,^2U,308

5,096.100

Delaware

7.00

1, ■•27,32)4

285,100

Maryland

6.09

70,3a3,326

20,3U2,300

Virginia

?.92

35,429,0h5

16,50U,300

South Carolina

5.98

377.637

1,719,U00

Worth Carolina

5.56

U, lies, 365

1,055,600

Georgia

6.83

1,532,3U5

23li,U00

Florida

U.7U

2,220,363

1,065,500

Alabama

5.01

2,UlO,l6l

1,357,700

Mississippi

5.30

U,2?U,333

7,706,U00

Louisiana

Ii.63

3,896,533

13,586,1100

Texas

U-38

1,930,70U

987,300

Total

180,532,663

8U, 018, 700
•

Washington

7.00

999,110

. 8,526,900

Oregon

7.00

17,500

215,300

California

7.00

1,250,515

2l|5,600

Grand Total

• 182,799,788

93,006,500

Depletion of oyster bars in the upper part of Chesapeake Bay is another

example of the gradual exhaustion of natural resources under a svsten of
"free" fishing." According to the estimate r.iade by Edwin G. Baetjer of

the Maryland Board of Natural Resources, the avera^^e production of oysters
on the 130,000 acre.' of the so-called dredger's area in Chesapeake Bay
has been reduced from ^h bushels to h bushels per acre, or less. The
inadequacy of restrictive measures enforced in this State, but not ac-
companied by a program of cultivation, is further demonstrated by condi-
tions in the Potomac Eivoi'. According to the survey made in 1?28 by the
former U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, now part of the Fish and ".Tilrilife Service,
the population of oyster:: in the river averaged 0.9 bushels per acre.
A Ill-year period of restricted fishing during which dredging on these bars
Viras prohibited by the State of Maryland, but permitted by Virginia, re-
sulted in only partial recovery of the resource. The present oyster popu-
lation, as estiraated last winter by the Fish and Tfildlife Service, averages
8.9 bushels of irarketable oysters per acre. This is only a very small
fraction of the population that could be maintained under cultivation on
an oyster bottom capable of supporting from 3'00 to 1,500 bushels of oysters
, per acre.

LEGISLATIVE MSASURES

The fact that continuous fishing on natural ejster beds leads to
their rapid exhaustion was recognised long ago. The earliest, and probably
the first, regulation concerning the oyster fishery in this country was
passed on June I4, I66I, a.rhen the Court held at Plymouth, Massachusetts,
enacted "that five shillings shalbee payed to the Countrey TOon every bar-
ren of Oj^sters that is carryed out of the Gov'ment ..." (Quoted from
Ingersol, The Oyster Industry, iBBl, p. 20)^ and nineteen years later on
the 7th of July I68O, the 2nd Session of the General Court at Plymouth
ordered "that such as a.re not of our collonie be heerby prohibited of
fetching oysters from Taunton River with Boates or any other vessells
..." Seizure of ?.. .ich "boates and vessels for the collonie 's vse" was
a punishnieno for the transgressors of this regulation.

TiThile the Kev/ Englanders already realized the value of their shell-
fisheries and took steps to protect them, the people of Marjrland thought
so little of the value of oysters as food that in depositions made by the
"Kent Islanders" in the famous Claiborne suit of about I68O they cited
among their grievances and hardships "that their supply of provisions be-
coming exhausted it was necessary for them, in order to keep from starva-
tion, to eat the oysters taken from along the shores" (quoted from G. H.
Stevenson, I89U, The Oyster Industry of Maryland, p. 203).

Conditions i.'ere different in 1820. By that tijne the oyster industry
of the State reached such a developmient that the General Assembly of Mary-
land passed an act which prohibited, under penalty of a fine of $20 or
sixty days' im.prisonment, the use of any implements in catching oysters
within the State other than the ordinary tongs, and also, the transporta-
tion of oysters out of the State in vessels that had not been owned wholly
by a citizen of the State for the preceding t^^elvo months. The reasons for
this enactment are clearly stated in the following quotation from its pre-
amble : "Ylhereas ... a great number of large vessels from the Northern

and I.'Iiddlo States frequent our waters for the purpose of transporting]; oys-
ters to those States j and wiioreas vrell-grounded apprehensions are enter-
tained of the utter extinction of oysters in the State, as vrell in conse-
quence of the i;:imense Quantity thereof exported as the destructive imple-
ments used in catching thoni: Therefore, ..."

As the one hundred and twenty- two yij.arj of history of the Maryland
oyster industry shoi<, apprehensions of "utter ext:uiction of oysters,"
was well-founded. Moreover, n'omerous atte:Tipts to conserve the fishery
by purely restrictive measures, produced no good results. Oyster bars,
subject to intensive dredging, became depleted, and the natural propagation
of oysters could not keep pace 'v.'ith the rate of fishing. A general de-
cline in production folloT;/ed, and the yield of the largest oyster-produc-
ing area in the world diminished to oiily a fraction of what it ^vas fifty
years ago.

The decline of the oyster industry in I&ryland attracts special atten-
tion, because in no other state of the Unioii has the legislative body
devoted so much of its t;me to the consideration of oyster laws and regvi-
lations. It is said that since 1820, the greater part of the time of the
Maryland General Assembly has been devoted to the aiscuesion and enactinent
of oyster laws, and that the momber of general anrl County measures adopted
by this legislative body surpasses tne total dealing \vith all other subjects
Certainly, there has bce-n no lack of legislative attention to the oyster
problems of the State. The record indicates the vital i)^'Oortance of the
oyster industry to the people of J:Iar;/land, but at the same time shows the
futility of attempts to solve the problem of oyster conservation solely
through laws and regulations •

No serious efforts have been m.ade to rehabilitate the depleted bottoms
by introducing a system of cultiva,tion of oysters. The same is true of
other states j the policy of free fishing on public reefs has been main-
tained, and oyster farming by private enterprise was discouraged, and
sometimes made virtually impossible through lack of adequate legal and
administrative protection. Oj^'ster-farming cannot be expected to progress
if the bottom leased to a private planter caii be taken aivay from him on
the testimony of two or three citizens, testifying under oath that the
ground in question was formerly a natural oyster bed and produced oysters
in quantities sufficient to provide profitable fishing. Disregard of
property rights, poaching and stealing of oysters from private grounds,
and leniency of courts in dealing vj-ith trespasses pres-^nt in many States
almost insurmountable difficulties to the establishment of o^/ster culti-
vation.

NATUR/IL OYSTER BEDS AND CONSERVATION

Legal definitions of a natural oyster bed vary from state to state,
are usually ainbiguous and are, therefore, subject to different interpreta-
tions. Although some of the states recognize that natural beds may cease
to produce oysters in commercial quantities and, thereof ore, should be
leased to private oyster grovrers, the period of time required for the
ground to remain nonproductive before it can be leased is too long. V/hen
such a bed becomes available to private grovirers, it may be so nearly
destroyed that it is no longer desirable.

5

The oyster lavfs of virtually every coastal state contain provisions
of conservation intent, such a,s restrictions on gear or rate of fishing,
closed periods, and requirements for culling, and return of a certain
portion of the shells to the natural beds. Vfiiile sound and justified
by the cii'cuwstances, these r.ieasuros are shown to have been ineffective
by the present condition of the natur;il grounds.

Failure of the laws is probably a result of our faulty concept that
the adoption of a new regulation is by itself sufficient to solve a problem
of conservation. The facts, however, show that the enactment of numerous
conservation lav/s had little effect in conserving the oyster beds, and
that honest enforcement of the restrictive measures failed to stop depletion.

The reason for this unfortunate result is that, at the present time,
under the most favorable conditions, the rate of natural propagation and
growth of the oyster population is too lov/ to replace the stock taken by
commercial fishermen. However, the productivity of oyster beds can be
materially and rapidly increased by adopting a system of cultivation and
by applying proper i.ietho'is of oyster farming.

PLANTING OF SHELLS AND SEED

In the absence of a definite system of management, incidental measures
such as planting of shells and seed or enforcement of cull laws, etc.,
are incapable of protecting our resoui-ces from further deterioration for
they deal with only a few phases of oyster cultivation v.-hile neglecting
others that are equally imiportant. Obviously, there is no reason for
planting shells in a location where setting cannot be expected because
of the lack of spavmers, fouling of shells, or for some other cause.
Yet millions of dollars and thousands of tons of shell have been r/asted
in the past to comply v/ith the lay/ demanding that shells be returned to
oyster bottoms. Huge rehabilitation projects carried out only a few years
ago by some of the states, as part of the national relief program, involved
the transplanting of millions of bushels of shells and seed oj^sters. So
far as the restoration of the oyster beds was concerned, the results were
entirely out of proportion to the money spent, and in m.any instances
negative. In several well-knoi"m cases, failure viras due to the ignorance
or inefficiancy of the supervisors of the projects vj'ho piled oyster shells
on the bottom of the sea in heaps several feet high with the expectation
that tides a.nd currents would distribute them| planted them in polluted
areas where fishing is prohibited] or mistook a small noncomm.ercial variety
of oyster (0. equestris) for a year-old eastern oyster and transplanted
thousands oT bushels of this "seed" which of course nev^r increased in \
size and only damaged the beds. Even when large scale planting oper-.i.tions
on public beds were carried out intelligently and skillfully, they resulted
only in a temporary inprovement, for the supply of marketable oysters was
removed within a fet. T^reeks after the grounds were opened to fishing.

Planting of seed or shells by the government is considered by many
as an indirect subsidy to the dredgers and tongers. Even as a subsidy,
the system is not effective because the benefit obtained from it is of

were j^
were ^^T
.nee 0/r

very short duration. It does not result in permanent iiaprovement of grounds \
and under present coniitions has very little value as a conservation mea- \
sure. Yet it is a well-established fact that planting of shells and seed
is the principal operation employed hy every oyster grower in the cultiva-
tion of oysters. The state governments fail to obtain even a small degree
of success in rehabilitating public grounds because, not having a comprehen- !
sive or continuous system of .management, they are not in a position to de- i
termine what should be undert3.ken under existing circumstances. In deciding y \
when, vfhere, and how many shells or seed to plant, or vj-hen and under what
conditions the marketable oysters should be harvested, they often act in ,

ignorance or are influenced by political considerations =, i

PRODUCTB^ITY OF OYSTER BOTTOL'S I

Maintenance of oyster bottoms on a sustained yield basis and full util- |
ization of the potential productivity of oyster grounds are possible but I

can be achieved onl3- as a result of a lYell-planned and carefully executed
system of cultivation. Thus, if public oyster grn-.mds are to return to
productivity, their man ; ;;ement liiust take into ccrifr.deration the siiitability
of bottoms for catc'iln.f? aeed or for growing mark:-r'-,::^ble stock; the rate of ■:
growth of oysters; the na-tural productivity of boVuons; establishment of ]

spa-vming grounds; and planting of cultch. Plans must bo vforked out after (
the adaptability of the existing bottoi.is for dofinite phases of oyster farm-
ing has been ascertained, and. the extent of various areas and their poten-
tial productivity deterrdnad.

An estimate of the present assets of the oyster fishery indicates
that the potential yield of our public oyster grounds is far gi-eater than
their present crop. There are at present about one and a quarter miillion
acres of oyster grounds v.liich yield only about 1|'?.2 iiiillion pounds of oyster IJ^y^'^
m.eat — or on the average fi'om 5' to 6 bush-Is of oysters in the shell per O^^^^Z^-^'"''''^ '
acre. Many of these gro\mds are so depleted that they no longer attract ■

the oystermen who, naturally, seek more prolific areas. The average figure
of productivity is, therefore, too low because it includes areas, which,
at present, do not contribute to the fishery. If through the application .
of methods of cultivation 500,000 or less than half of the total number
of acres could be made to produce annually about 30 bushels per acre, a
total yield from public grounds of between 75 and 90 million pounds of
meat, or about tvfice the present amount might be expected.

Of course, such an improvement cannot be made in a short time. Usually
much more time is required for the restoration of a natural resource than 1
for its destruction. The sooner, hov.'-ever, vre adopt a policy of better manage-
m^ent, the sooner vre can expect results. From the example of the cultiva-
tion of the Pacific oyster in the State of Washington, vre know that i/ithin
a few years the yield of this industry grew from virtually .nothing to about
10.7 million pounds annutxlly with the expectation that production can be
increased materia,lly in 1?I|.3 aiid 19UU. This is an outstandJ.ng example of
the success of oyster farming conducted by private enterprise and with very
little encouragement by the government. Despite this achievement, there .
exists in many states almost unconquerable opposition to the idea, of private ff [/t!<f^
oyster cixLture so that attempts to obtain legislation liberalizing the con
ditions for the leasing of natural beds are doomed to failure. This situa-
tion leaves the state governments no other alternative but themselves to
iltivation of o^mtovs . iii---'i'.

ate a u/i
n- (^

engage in the cultivate

' U. S.

CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS

There arc various degrees of cultivation. The most elaborate system
practiced by the large coinnercial concerns in northern waters comprises
several distinct operations such as, preparation of bottoms, planting cultch
to catch spat J transplanting :i t to growinc^ gi'ounds, planting of young oys-
ters grovm from spat to maturing arid fattening ground, and harvesting and
preparation of the oysters for the market. An alhiost complete lack of
cultivation is found, for instance in Georgia, where the supply of oysters
for canneries and shucking houses is obtained "from badly neglected and de-
pleted public grounds or is imported. Oyster culture in Delaware and New
Jersey is in an intermediate condition for the gro'.'ers are partly dependent
on the existence of public reefs from v;hich to obtain seed for planting
on privately-ovmed beds.

Since the limits of this leaflet do not peri.iit a detailed discussion
of the legal and teclinical problems of individual States, certain basic
principles are outlined which, Virith necessary modification, can be applied
to a variety of local conditions. One must bear in m.lnd that natural oys-
ter, beds cannot produce as many oysters as can cultivated bottoms. The
chief reason. for this is that the wild population of the natural bed is
composed of various age groups ivhich, to a certain extent, interfere with
each other. Spat and seed attach themselves to the adult oysters and com-
pete with them for water, oxjrgen, and food. Some of the small oysters can-
not be culled off, and aro destroyed when the catch is delivered to the
shucking house, while others are injured in culling and perish. Shells
of young are easily broken by the tect]i of heav7,'- dredges adjusted to take
large oysters and harvesting sometimes results in the destruction of large
numbers of undersized specijnens.

On the other hand, a unit of the planted bottom of a well-conducted
farm contains a population of oysters of a uniform age which are placed
in a desired concentration and are not disturbed by dredging. There is
less competition for food and the ojrsters have better conditions for rapid
growth and fattening. Harvesting from a cultivated bottom does not require
culling and is, therefore, more efficient and economical.

In planting operations as usually conducted by State governments, no
attention is paid to the segregation of oysters of various ages. Thus, in
spite of the efforts and money expended, the planted bed still retains all
the undesirable conditions of a v/ild "natural" one, under which production
in pounds of meat per acre cannot bo high.

- mNAGELffiNT OF PUBLIC GROUNDS

Considerable improvement in the management of public -oyster grounds
can be expected if state planting operations are conducted by a plan similar
to that used hj private oyster growers. Simple computation sho^vs that it
is more advantageous to plant spat than seed oysters tvro or three years
old. A bushel of shells containing about 2,000 spat may be expected to
produce, by the end of the third j^ear, betvreen h and 5 bushels of market-
able oysters (assuming 300 oysters to a bushel and cumulative mortality

of 20 percent). ITith the higher concentration of spat that sometimes pre-
vails, an ever higher yield of 6 to 7 bushels from 1 bushel of spat may
be attained. Hovevcr, a return of 1:1 is the average that can be expected
from planting 2- and 3-ysar-old seed. Sircu the cost of planting one bushel
of shells witli spat or one bushel of seed oysters is about the same, the
advantages of planting the former' are obvious.

To ensure a sufficient supply of seed, existing setting areas should
be utilized to establish spavming grounds closed to fishing, and by provid-
ing cultch. State grounds from Y/hich planters are permitted to take seed
for planting should be protected by prohibiting the removal of adult oysters
and shells. The taking of these is probablv one of the chief reasons for
the exhaustion of seed grounds in Delaware Bay. The situation can be easily
remedied by the enforcement of existing lavfs and by the establishment of
sanctuaries.

Planted areas should be closed to fishing and opened only Tifhen the
oysters reach marketable size. Tlien the bed c.an be opened to fishing and
the oystermen encouraged to remove and market all of the oysters in order
to have the ground ready for the next planting. Since natural growth of
an oyster population is not great enough to keep pace with the rate of
commercial fishing, no good purpose is served by leaving marketable oysters
on planted ground. They should be removed and replaced by seed.

Harvesting of oyster? should be regulated because the opening of state-
cultivated grounds to free fishing may result in such a rush and competition
among the dredgers and tougers that the inarket may be glutted, prices fall,
and the harvest largely v;asted. These iindesirable features, which in the
past have caused great confusion and disorganization in the fishing industry,
can be avoided by establishing a daily catch limit per boat, and by restrict-
ing the number of boats, or both. This can be accomplished by various means,
as by issuing special permits good for a limited period and by checking
the boats and their loads when they leave the grounds. For the successful
operation of a program of state management, the control of the harvesting
is as important as the production of the crop.

In carrying out this general scheme it is suggested that, at first,
the badly depleted bottoms be set aside for state planting. Since fishing
on them is unprofitable, their closing will not interfere vfith the existing
fishery. The areas selected for planting should be closed, posted, and
cleaned.

From the very beginning, distinction should be made betofeen the setting
and growing- grounds and no shells should be planted on the latter except
for reinforcing soft bottoms. Depending upon local conditions and the
time required for the oysters to reach marketable size, grounds should
be used in rotation to be ready for harvesting in 2, 3, or h years.

T^vo questions naturally arise: (1) How should these oyster-farming opera-
tions by the state be financed, and (2) v.'hy should all the work be carried
out for the benefit of the oystermen who appear only as reapers of a crop

they do not plant? An lndirt;ct subsidy to the oystermen from the general
taxpayer's money can be avoided if, for the privilege of harvesting from
planted areas, a special assessment is made on each bushel or gallon of oys-
ters taker, and the money so collected is in tirrn spent on the improvement
prograij. P'ljjids for shell planting v«hich several states have at their dis-
posal could be used to defray initial expenses. At present, this money is
spent in more or less indiscriminate planting and is usually dissipated
without producing permanent improvement. Suppose that under a neMi system
of management, the state plants several thousand acres of prepared, good
grounds at the rather high cost of 75 cents a bushel of shells, each con-
taining about 2,000 spat. 3;.^ the end of thi third year when the oysters
are ready for market, they can be expected to yield about 1; l/2 bushels to
one of the original seed. The grounds would then be open to the oystermen
who vjould pa^;", however, a special assessment for the privilege of taking
cultivated oysters, and whose catch should be regulated.

Harvestin.g oysters from cultivated grounds requires less effort than
working on depleted natural beds where oysters are scarce, and it is rea-
sonable to expect that the oysterman v-rould be able to miake a good profit
even if assessed at the rate of 20 cents a bushel. Because the yield of
cultivated oysters in pints per bushel averages higher than that of wild
ones, the assessment covering the cost of cultivation cannot be considered
too burdensome, especiiilly if the market price of oysters remains at the
present level. Even at a selling price of $1.00 a bushel the oj'-stermen would
be able to make a substantial profit because of thr.> better yield and conse-
quent higher efficiency of harvesting on planted areas. At the rate of 20
cents a bushel, the State v.'ould collect 90 cents {h l/2 x 20) for each 75
cents invested in the planting and could apply the money to a revolving fund
from vj-hich further oyster faming operations would be a.dministered and financed.
The figures suggested are here given only in illustration and should not
be considered as definite recoirunendations. The proper rate of assessment
would vary in different states and in different years depending on the success
of planting operations, market conditions, and other factors. The assess-
ment is restricted to the crop harvested from state-planted grounds and
does not apply to other beds under the jurisdiction of the state that are
not cultivated. For collecting the assessment, a system, of checking can
be a.dopted similar to that now in operation in Louisiana. Oysters gathered
in Louisiana for the canneries at Biloxi, Mississippi, must be cleared through
a port of entry where a certificate is given showing the number of bushels
and the point of origin of oysters taken outside of state viraters . Payment
of the assessment is made through the operator of the plant receiving the
oysters. I believe a similar system for the collection of a special assess-
ment on cultivated oysters taken from state-planted grounds can be worked
out in every state.

The proposed system of management can be put into operation gradually,
by a state, beginning T'ith a limited area, carefully selected, in a section
where it can easily be patrolled.

In states where strong antagonism exists between the tongers and the
dredgers, a certain degree of reconciliation may be attained by offering
to both groups an opportunity to participate vfith the state in oyster-farm-
ing operations. Dredgers who agree to prepare the bottoms and plant specified

10

amounts of shells or seed r^ay receive in return preferred rights in harvest-
ing the crop. Similarly tongers may be encouraged to engage in the produc-
tion of seed by planting shells and other cultch in the inshore waters and
selling their surplus to the state. It is believed that in this way produc-
tion of seed oysters can be increased. Tongers who ovm small farms along
the shores can obtain additional income frohi this source and utilize Tiith
profit the time they are not engaged in fishing. Other methods of coopera-
tion between the state and the oystorraen can be devised. For instance, the
right to harvest planted oysters may be offered at public auction and granted
to the highest bidders.

It is not the present purpose to discuss details of organization ivhich
obviously must differ in the various states, in accordance with natural,
economic, and social conditions. It should be reemphasised, however, that ^
the productivity of oyster bottoms can be maintained only t'nrough cultivation.
If the development of private oyster-faming is impossible, then the cultiva-
tion of bottoms must be carried out by the state governments. In the majority
of the states, the management of tlie ojsto.r fisheries is in the hands of the
legislative bodies and often becomes a political issue in which the interests
of conservation are submerged or lost. Even in states where the adminis-
trative officer enjoys discretionary power, his t ;nure of office is indirectly
dependent en the voters. Many difficulties in the past can be attributed
to the failure of state administrators to acouainb the fishermen with the
reasons for adopting certain restrictive measures. The success of a new
system of m^anagoment of oyster bottoms, as oTitlined above, depends on the
support it may receive from the people who earn th,ir livelihood by oyster-
ing. It is, therefore, essential to popularize ne^/ ideas among the oyster-
men through meetings, publications, and demons tra.tions and to gain their
confidence by organizing local councils to form.ulate their specific needs
and discuss ways of overcom.ing difficulties. The animosity between the
fishermen "v/ho naturally want to use the m.ost effective methods of fishing
and the administrator who restricts their activity can be ainLmized or
eliininated if attempts are made to explain the principles of management and
ma.ke the fishermen a. party to the conservation effort. The task may be
difficult especially at the beginning but it is certain to produce good
results in the long run.

The execution of a nevf program of management must be based on a thorough
knowledge of local grounds and on an understanding of the behavior of oysters
in each locality. It will be necessary, therefore, to have a staff of compe-
tent oyster biologists or oyster culturists to study local conditions and
to direct oyster farming operations. Extensive experim.ental research may
be needed in many localities in order to determine the best method of re-
habilitation of oyster bottoms and their protection against enemies, para-
sites, and pollution. These are services yfhich, perhaps, may best be ren-
dered by a Federal or interstate organization.

SEED OYSTEPiS

Students of oyster problems in the United States realize that the pro-
duction of spat and of an adequate supply of seed is essential to success
of the industry. Future progress is dependent on our ability to produce

11

seed oysters in th:5 loc;'litlus, and at the tines T;hen thi;y are needed.
In past years, considorablc proii;ress has been made in acquiring knowledge
of the factors that control the spavming and setting of oysters, but still
more specific infornation is needed in order to understand hoiJ' the oyster
larvae react to the outside environnent and vhy they set successfully in
one place and fail to do so in another. It is well-knovm that good setting
grounds r,ny be very poor for the growing of oysters and that good maturing
grounds may be useless for catching spat. In general, the best sued grounds
are close to the mouths of rivers in v;ators of low salinity.

Seed grounds close to industrial and densely populated areas suffer
more from iiidustrial and domestic pollution than do those located farther
offshore in deeper waters. A great many formerly productive sc3ed-oyster
grounds _have been destroyed by industrial wastes. Furthermore, seed areas
cannot be fully utilized because they are under the jurisdiction of municipal
or county governments w-hich have a tendency to issue regulations intended
to protect the rights of local residents rather than those of the entire
state or country. Under these conditions full utilization of the seed-
oyster possibilities becomes impossible.

Observation of the practices employed by piivato growers and by some
of the state govcmm.ents shows that transplantation of seed is often carried
on without proper safeguards. For instance, no effort, as a riile, is made
to remove the oyster-drills and. their ogg-capsules and no attention is
paid to the condition of young oysters. Recent studies disclose that on
m.any of the natural seed grounds, especially in southern waters, the oysters
are badly infected with a protozoan parasite (Mematopsis). Yet rather large
quantities of the infected seed have been gathered ana planted among healthy
oysters. Apparently, IJematopsis infection does not destroy the oysters
under norm.al conditions and it is firmly established that the parasite is
not injurious to hmaan health, yet there is no doubt that its presence
is undesirable for it may affect the quality of the oysters and even render
them, unmarketable. As in the case of the oyster-drills, which are being
spread prim.arily by the oystermen, the Nematopsis parasites also are dis-
tributed over a wide range thjrough carelessness of the planters.

The problem of adequate production of healthy seed oysters is a serious
one that should be ,.;iven careral attention by the state governments. Es-
tablishiiient of spai-jnlng and seed reserves appears to be one of the m.ethods
of meeting the situation, and of making good use of many of the depleted
and abandoned public grounds.

CONTROL OF ENEi.'IIES

Depredation by starfishes continues to be a major concern of oyster-
growers in the North. That starfish infestation can be controlled and
that thousands of pounds of oyster meat devoured by these pests can be
saved for human consumption have been demonstrated by the work of biologists
of the Fish and Wildlife Service and others. It has been shavm also that,
to be a success, the control of starfishes requires organized effort on
the part of private oyster-growers and the state governments.

12

Surveys conducted by tho U. S. Fish r;nd l/ildlifo Service in Long
Island Sound givu .-.ii.iplci evidencu that abandoned private buds negl;./ctdd by
the ovmers, and unattended natural beds noglccted by the state, are the
principal breeding nlaccs of starfishes. It is a.n obvious responsibility
of the state govf^rnaont to prevent publicly owied grounds from becoming
a menace to the nearby private oyster-farns. On the other hand private
planters, in i'airness to their neighbors, should be required to free their
uncultivated plots from dangerous pests.

POLLUTION

The incruase in domestic pollution of inshore v/aters is a serious
obstacle to the prOi^ess of the shellfish industry. p]vidence indicates
that not only is there a considerable increase in the spread of domestic
pollution, resulting frc.:i increased vrar production activities, and the
construction of new military and naval establishnonts and housing projects
for vfar v/orkwrs, but that there is a tendency on the part of the health
officers to relax their vigilance. The interests of the oyster industry
demand that public health be fully saffgur^rdod :.nd that ^lo compromise be
accepted where thei-e is danger of an infected product reaching the market.
For the sake of self-preservation the industry should insist on strict
enforcement of public health regul"tions. In doing so, it vifill prevent
repetition of the disaster of 1925 .

Industrial pollution also int^^rferes with the oyster industry. Various
chemicals, oils, and pulp-mill wastes enter our co:..stal i.vaters in ever-
increasing quantities. Extensive research is necessary in order to devise
methods of purification, or recover^- of various wastes so that they v/ill
not be discharged into our bays and estuaries and accumulate on the shell-
fish bottoms . The toxic effect of many of the pollutants has been demon-
strated by nuiuerous studies conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and by various state and university laboratories in this country and abroad.
M3.ny progressive manufacturers show their willingness to cooperate with
those engaged in the conservation of our food resources, while others
protest the results of scientific findings and try to prove that the \7astes
that are discharged into the Y;aters are not onlj^ harmless to marine life
but are even stimulating to its propagation and grov/th.

The solving of pollution problems should be sought tlirough coopera-
tion in research conducted jointly by fishery biologists and the technolo-
gists trorking for manufacturing concerns. Scientific and technical studies
of the method of recovery and purification of industrial \/astes may lead
to economies and funds expended for this purpose, in the long run, will
bring higher dividends than money spent in unconstructive litigation.

CONCLUSION

It has been shoi/m that the potential productivity of shellfish bottoms
is much greater tha;i their present yield and that the decline in the pro-
duction of oysters is due to lack of cultivation on public grounds. The
rehabilitation of depleted bottoms can be attained by adopting a system
of manageraent vfhich K/ill result in their development and perr^it long-con-
tinued utilization. Certain principles of such a system have been sug-
gested to stimulate interest and focus attention on the urgent need for

13

modifying obsolete and incl'ficiont methods of administration of the oyster
fishery. The management of shellfishery resources is a state problem
that should be solved separately by the citizens of the various states
through their legislative bodies. Action should be prompt as our present
system, or lack of one, is loading to the gradual depletion of our valuable
shellfish resources. However, it is certain that production can be ma-
terially^ increased by fclloYflng certain basic principles of cultivation
and management.

2807

Ik

National Shellfisherj.es Asf^ocjaticn, Philadelphia Meeting, June 19^3
HOW NEW JERSEY PLi'\NS FOR MORE OYSTERS *

Dr. Thurlow C. Nelsson, New Jersey-
Oyster Research Laboratory, Rutgers
University, Outlines Program

Successful production of oysters requires tliree things: (1) a dependable sup-
ply of seed; (2) a reliable source of oyster food for growth and fattening; (3)
adequate control of oyster enemies. New Jersey is unique among our states in that
better than 90 percent of the seed oysters planted upon privately leased grounds
come from State controlled natural oyster beds. These beds furthermore are used
solely for seed production and not for raising marketable oysters. The industry
is concentrated in three areas: Great Bay and the Mullica River; Great Egg Har-
bor, Great Egg Harbor River and Tuckahoe River on the Atlantic seaboard; Maurice
River Gove and Delaware Bay where most of the industry is located.

The map of Maurice River Cove and Delavirare Bay shows a wide cove which nar-
rows dovm to the bay and the river. Maps of Great Bay and of Great Egg Harbor
would show an essentially similar situation. The o;/-ster planting grounds lie well
down in the broad expanse of the lower bay while the natural oyster beds lie in
the much narrower area where the bay funnels down into the river. In Maurice
River Cove lie approximately 30,000 acres of planting grounds with some 20,000
acres of natural oyster beds in the upper narrow portion of the bay.

Dr. Julius Nelson showed in 1917 that oyster larvae rise during flood tide
and thus are carried toward headvraters. Our ovm studies in Little Egg Harbor pub-
lished in the same year and later work in Barnogat Bay and in Delav/are Bay have
abundantly confirmed this reaction of the larvae to the tides. As a result of
this distribution of the larvae there are in Delaware Bay as a whole three primary
setting areas; above the Southwest Line on the New Jersey side, the corresponding
area on the Delaware side and the Cape May shore of the lovror bay. Among the fac-
tors responsible for this distribution of the oyster larvae, the most important
appears to be the set of the currents resulting from the rotation of the earth.
The contribution of science to the problem of soed production in Nevf Jersey has
been to demonstrate v/here the larvae are most abundant and the period over which
setting may be expected to occur.

The survival of the natural beds in Delaware Bay has been due solely to the
enforcement of the Rough Cull Law of 1899 which provides that not more than one-
seventh of the catch shall consist of shells to v/hich no oysters are attached. All
other shells must be returned at once to the bottom. Supplementing the natural
supply of shells has been the shell planting program carried out jointly by the
State of Nev; Jersey and the oyster grov;ers. A portion of the tax on gross tonnage
of the boats and of the license fees of tongers is used to match on equal terms
the state appropriation for shell planting. The shells are purchased from the
local shucking houses and planted v/here the prospects of a favorable set are good
and Yfhere they are most needed in maintaining the beds. In 1928 more than a mil-
lion bushels of shells v/ere planted under this cooperative agreement. l^\irthermore ,
they T/ere planted according to® advice received from the Oyster Research Laboratory.
That this method of handling the beds is economically and biologically sound is
proved by the steady rise of the industry to its peak of over five million dollars
worth of oysters in 1928.

* Published in Atlantic Fisherman, Inc., Goffstiown, N. H., August 194.3.

Nelson's Address — Page 2

Value of "Sanctuaries"

Our experience over more than half a century in Ne\;' Jersey proves the value
of placing the natural beds upstream from the planting grounds. The larvae are
carried here from the planting grounds vthile the low salinity keeps down the various
enemies of the oyster all of vmich are marine. The young spat are, therefore, able
to pass through the dangerous first months, v^rhen their shells are very thin, pro-
tected from these enemies.

Experience has also shown the vdsdom of providing "sanctuaries" of spavaiing
(TAsters in close proximity to the planted shells. Again and again we have found on
the natural oyster bods of Delaware Bay only light sets on newly planted shells ex-
cept in a zone above and below the sanctuaries where the set has often been very
heavy. For example, we recently dredged f;!iell3 adjacent to Ne?/ Beds and found only
three clusters of last year's set in a dredge full of empty shells. A short dis-
tance away ?/here large oysters were planted vilth the shells, practically every shell
bore a heav;/ set.

The decade 1930 to 194.0 will long be remembered as the driest on record in
this Stated The food available to the oyster was sharply diminished while the ene-
mies all of Tfhich are marine enjoyed a Roman holiday. This coupled with loss of
oysters on bottoms shifting during two hurricanes reduced New Jersey's output from
approximately 14 million pounds of oyster meats a year to about half that figure.

This is the v/ar's challenge to the industry in Now Jersey; can we return to the
production figures of the years before 1931V Our first step is to reduce our losses
due to our worst enemy, the oyster drill. On a conservative estimate vfe lose from
this pest alone at least one quarter of our total possible crop. Three practical
methods for control of drills are: the drill trap, the drill dredge, and the deck
screen. The trap is a small bag of one inch chicken wire containing young oysters
and strung on a trotline. Drills are attracted to these younger oysters and may be
shaken out into the boat by lifting the line as often as necessary-. The drill dre-
dge drawn through a bed of oysters permits these to timible up the inclined grid while
the drills fall through into the pan beneath. The deck screen receives the catch
from the dredge; the oysters are shoveled back, the drills fall through. Use of this
device during transplanting should be made mandatory. In its present form, however,
the deck screen is not v/holly satisfactory, the chief drav/back being that screens are
not lifted frequently enough to keep the trash with the drills cleared from under-
neath. An improved model now being planned will stand well above the deck and be
used after the manner of a coal chute. The oysters virill be shoveled onto this
screen from vrtiich they roll overboard.

As a practical demonstration of the results of drill trapping may be cited a
lOO-acre ground which after planting was divided into four equal quarters. One quar-
ter was drill trapped for a two-year period, the other three-quarters left alone.
Upon harvesting the quarter vihich had been trapped jdelded more oysters than the other
three-quarters combined.

The third means of increasing production of 03/ster meats through more abundant
food for the oyster is still very much in an experimental stage. The ultimate pos-
sibilities in this field arc shovm by the fact that a single species of diatom,
Skeletonema costatum , by its unusual abundance added approximately one-half a million
dollars to the value of a year's crop of oysters from Delaware Bay. Experiments to
determine the substances necessary for growth of this diatom have been carried on du-
ring the year and vdll be continued. We are also experimenting with ways through
vjhich the diatoms and other organisms on the oysters' shells may be increased.

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 19A3

INCREASING PRODUCTION OF OYSTERS IN MARYLAND

By Edwin Warfield, Jr.
Chairman, Board of Natural Resources
State Department of Tidewater Fisheries, Anapolis, Maryland

'i

We have listened v/ith particular interest to Dr. Galtsoff's proposals directed
to the more effective management of the public rocks in our oyster producing states
as vie in Maryland have been undertaking to put into effect a program for the manage-
ment of our public oyster resoiorces quite similar to the program which he is propos-
ing. It vroiild perhaps, therefore, be pertinent to this discussion if I should commen'i
briefly at this time concerning the problems we have encoimtered land our efforts to
overcome them.

The importance which this question of the better management of our public rocks
holds for Maryland can best be indicated by calling attention to the fact that we
have now under private lease some 7,000 acres, \7hereas the areas of our natural rocks
in round numbers comprises 275,000 acres.

V^e are quite aware as has been pointed out by Dr. Galtsoff that as compared v;ith
the results obtained by private oyster farmers, the results of efforts on the part of
the several states to increase or in fact maintain the production of their natural
oydter rocks have been quite outstanding for their lack of success. Viewing the
matter realistically, however, in our State, we are of the opinion that proposals
looking to the leasing of public rocks to private interests are likely to fail in
the future as they have in the past. Our choice of procedure in Maryland is not
public versus private development, but seems to be a choice between efficient and
inefficient public operation. Our Commission, therefore, has attempted to lay the
groundwork for effective state oyster farming on its natural rocks. In this under-
taking, it recognizes fully the difficulties inherent in this type of state opera-
tion. It believes, hov/ever, that though the State is not likely to equal the results
obtained by the more successful private oyster farmers, there is still the possibilit;;
of improving by a wide margin the resiilts now being secured. In carrying forward a
program of state operation, however, we hope to enhance the possibilities of success-
ful operation of the private planters en leased bottoms through the development of an
adequate source of seed supply for their use.

Three years ago it v/as my privilege to outline before this group a plan by means
of vi^hich T/e hope to increase oyster production in Maryland. As indicated above, it
was essentially the same plan as that proposed by Dr. Galtsoff. In putting this
program into effect, however, we have been confronted with restrictive laws and
rather difficult administrative problems, and our efforts in the intervening years
have been largely directed tov;ard overcoming these obstacles.

The basic requirement for any oyster farming program, whether private or public,
is, of course, the provision of an adequate and reasonably dependable source of seed.
The most promising seed areas in our State appear to be located principally in tribu-
tary or county vraters, v;hereas the greatest degree of depletion in our natural rocks
has taken place in the bars located in the Chesapeake Bay and the deeper waters of the
larger tributaries. Our restrictive laxis have prohibited the transplanting of seed
from country waters to State waters, or for that matter, between counties. Though
uur efforts to have this restrictive law amended were only partially successful in
19/i.l, we did succeed in the recent session of the Maryland Legislature in securing
a broad grant of pov/er enabling us to undertake measures for the development and
full utilization of potential seed areas. Thus for the first time our Commission
finds itself in a position to embark on a program of oyster farming.

VJarfield's Address — Page 2 '

The prospect for the development of seed areas proportionate to our needs have
to date, however, been none too promising. IThile this is discouraging, it is our
belief that on the basis of experience gained in a few favorable localities and v;ith
the application of better oyster farming techniques supported by adequate research,
it should be possible to produce seed oysters in substantially increasing quantities.

Since our program contemplates the planting of seed on growing bars v/here they
v;ould be protected iintil they have obtained a desirable and profitable growth, it is
neceso'.ry that complete control of those planted areas be vested in the CoKimission.
The authority of the Ccmraissicn in this respect has been broadened by legislative
enactment and is now thought to be sufficient.

Adequate research appears to be essential to successful oyster farming, whether
private or public. Vife have been laboring under a considerable handicap in this res-
pect in our Chesapeake Bay oyster operations due to insufficient appropriations for
research. Vife are pleased to bo able to report, however, that a substantial sum v/as
appropriated for oyster research to our State Department of Research and Education,
which agency was established in 1941 to servo the several State conservation agencies.
Vife are hopeful also that the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service will extend its oyster
studies in Maryland waters and that the cooperative effort of these two agencies v?ill
provide essential information in support of this State's oyster farming activities.
This cooperative effort has already borne fruit in a study now in progress of the
oyster resources of the Potomac River and its tributaries.

Oyster farming, T/hethor private or State, requires considerable capita].. Annual
appropriations of substantial sums have been made in Maryland for a number of years
for use in oyster rehabilitation activities. The effectiveness of these expenditures
in the past is open to serious question. It has, in the main, been treated as a sub-
sidy and only relatively small amounts have been recovered through direct taxation of
the industry. This taxpayers money should, in our opinion, be treated as a capital
investment and must be recoverable through subsequent taxes levied on the harvested
crop to provide funds for reinvestment if the program is to be expanded to a point of
real significance. Under our existing laws, such a procedure seems practicable and
it has been adopted by our Commission as an essential part of our program.

Protection of the planted crop until ready for harvest is, of course, necessary.
We are fully aware of this fact and have been striving for increased effectiveness on
the part of our lav; eni'orcement personnel.

Another important element in the ultimate success of cur State oyster farming
program would appear to be the degree of cooperation in carrying through the program
which it will be possible to obtain on th^i part of the oystermen and the industry.
Provision has been made by recent legislation for an educational director to function
under the Department of Research and Education. We arc hopefiil that with the ac-
tivities of this educational agency combined with the efforts of the personnel of
our Department, substantial progress may be aciiieved along this line.

Even though a plan may bo carefully v;crl:,::l out based on adequate research and
implcm.ented by the necessary legislative authority, it will obviously fail if sound
administration is lacking. I think I am safe in saying that it has yet to be demons-
trated that the necessary type of business administration can be provided under the
political systems prevailing in most of our States, Maryland has been no exception
in this respect. There have, of course, been able administrations at different times
and in different places.

Warfield's Address — Page 3

One of the greatest hindrances to nuccessful State operation, however, has been a lacl
of continuity of program and policy and the prevalence of political interference.
We have attempted to meet this problem in Maryland on the one hand by extending the
terras of office of the members of our Commisr.ion of Tidewater Fisheries from four to
six years on a staggered term basis and by an extension of its discretionarj'' povifers.
On the other hand, we are undertaking to build up a competent staff of administrators
having permanent tenure of office under the protection of the Merit System law.

This brief discussion has had to do with the problems of producing more oysters
on our natiiral rocks. This is the urgent problem facing us today v/hen the adequacy
of our food supply is a matter of national concern. With the return of normal times
and lessened demand for oysters coincident v;ith an increasing supply should our
program be successful, we will again in all likelihood be faced with a marketing
problem. That problem, I think you will agree, will await later discussion.

In closing, I should like to state that we are pleased at finding ourselves
in general agreement v^ith Dr. Galtsoff's proposals on this occasion. Hov/ever, after
four years of close contact with all of the problems involved, we are very conscious
of the difficvilties of the undertaking.

National Shellfisheries Associatioa, i-'liiladelphia Meeting, June 19U3
LOUISIMA'S SHELLFISH PROSPECTS *

By

Mr. J. N. McConnell, Director

Division of Oyster & VJater Bottoms

Louisiana Dept. of Conservation - Louisiana

"I Wish to give you a brief summary of what Louisiana is nov/ doing

and expects to do to increase oyster production as a part of the concerted national
effort to increase seafood production as rapidly as possible.

"Vfe have just completed the bedding of 180,000 bushels of shells delivered to
us by the various oyster steam canning plants operating in both Louisiana and
Mississippi. This amount represents 10 percent of the amount removed from our na-
tural reefs during, the season 194.2-4-3 •

"These shells 7/ere planted at factory expense under the direct supervision of
the Oyster Division of the Louisiana Department of Conservation. From the expe-
rience acquired from 10 years of this type of planting we can reasonably expect a
crop from this planting alone of 700,000 bushels ready for the market dviring the
season 1944-45.

"For the past two years we have been transplanting 18,000 to 24,000 bushels of
seed oysters from overcrov/ded areas to depleted reefs. This work was done by seve-
ral factories in lieu of shells and excellent results were obtained. This type of
cultivation has the advantage of a resultant better grade of oysters remaining on
the reefs and also having marketable oysters available on the depleted reef in one
year's time, from the date of transplanting, and important additional food.

"Before leaving New Orleans, for this convention, I received assurance from
the Governor of Louisiana and the Commissioner of Conservation that a special sura of
$50,000 would be set aside for the immediate bedding of additional oyster shells as
"cultch" and additional transplanting of seed from overcrov/ded areas.

"At this point I wish to emphasize the practical value obtained by scientific
information gathered in our biological experiments. We have been conducting these
experiments with the advice and assistance of Dr. Galtsoff and Dr. Hopkins and in
many cases have used the splendid facilities available to us at the Fish and Wildlife
Laboratory at Pensacola.

"The fact that we had graphs to show the necessity cf planting cultch now if we
v/anted maximum results was, I am sure, the deciding factor in having the money made
available for immediate use.

"Yie are fortunate in Louisiana in having large deposits of dead oyster shell
reefs. Some of these reefs covering hundreds of acres with depths ranging from 1
foot to 35 feet of dead reef shells.

"A royalty of 5 cents per cubic yard is charged for shells severed from these
dead reefs and during the calendar year of 1942 the Department of Conservation col-
lected approximately $88,000.00 from tliis source alone. At present this money goes
into the general fund of the State. It is novj planned to ask the Louisiana Legisla-

* Published in Fishing Gazette, 46l Eighth Ave., Mev; York, June 194.3-

McConnell's Address — Page 2

ture to set aside annually from this fund $50,000 to be used for oyster propagation
and we have every reason to believe this request v;ill be granted.

"Louisiana is glad to be able to state that in spite of all of the Virartime
problems, V7e have had to face, we are still able to shov; a small production increase
during the past year.

"In reading Dr. Galtsoff's address it was a distinct pleasure to note that
Louisiana showed by far the greatest increase in oyster production from the period
1890-92 to 1939} with the lone exception of the State of Washington where such
great strides have been made v?ith the Japanese oysters.

"It is the considered opinion of most of us in Louisiana that a great future
is opening to all oyster producers for the follov;ing reasons:

First, the shortage of all seafoods on the market today.

Second, the large number of military camps using oysters, which has cultivated
a taste for same among the personnel from states where this food is not a part of
their regular diet.

Third, the new method of refrigeration T;hich novj makes possible a quick frozen
package which retains most of the original flavor and texture of our oysters.

Fourth, transportation — with tremendous developments in aviation, we can rea-
sonably expect both freight and express to be taken to all parts of the v/orld as

scon as the v/ar is over.

"I sincerely believe that no matter which section of the country sells addi-
tional oysters to people that have not been in the habit of eating them, all sections
alike will benefit from resultant increased demands.

"When I had the honor of addressing this Association two years ago in Atlantic
City I mentioned that v/e v/ere hoping to obtain an aeroplane to assist us in patrol-
ing our coastal areas. We have been using a small 65 h.p. two-seated plane with
pontoon, for the last 18 months and it has proved extremely satisfactory. The mo-
ral effect on lav/ violators is surprising, as thes^ never can tell when v^e' will drop
in on them. This plane has been of great assistance to the Commissioner of Conser-
vation as v7ell as to all of the various Division Directors. We have found it to be
the most economical and efficient v;ay for us to know at all times what is going on
along our coast line and inland watenvays."

(Address given at Oyster Convention)

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 194-3
Problems of Oyster Production in Texas

Gordon Gunter, MarinCe Biologist

Texas Game, Fish and Oyr.t >r Goiiimission
(Read by Title)

The bay area of the Texas coast covers 3,4-60 square niles of water, about 700
sauare miles larger than the area of Chesapeake Bay. However, Texas oyster produc-
tion is very small compared to that of the Chesapeake area. Oysters grow only
along a little more than tvfo-thirds of the length of the Texas coast, that is from
Galveston Bay to Corpus Christi Bay. Along the whole area of the Laguna Madre, a
distance of 130 miles, extending from Corpus Christi to Mexico, no oysters live ex-
cept for a small patch at the very lower end, near Port Isabel. Here only a few
hundred gallons are produced annually, and, although this small patch of oysters is
very interesting biologically, being separated by many miles from other reefs, the
significance of it is entirely negligible from the standpoint of production. Evi-
dently these oysters grow under conditions tho.t are far from optimum and there is
a special law permitting small oysters to be taken. For practical purposes, oys-
ter production may be said to end south of Corpus Christi Bay.

At the end of the last ica age, when sea level returnod to its approximate
present position, an offshore bar was formed along the Texas coast, so that today
it has a double coastline. The area between the offshore bar and the mainland is
the coastal lagoon. It averages about four miles in v/idth. In addition, the mouths
of rivers have been embayed by wind and v;ave action, practically all of them at
right angles to the coastal lagoon, so that the bay area of the Texas coast may be
said to be composed of two parts, the coastal lagoon and the more recently embayed
back bays. Today the back bays are silting up rather rapidly as geological proces-
ses go, but the depths of tho coastal lagoon have boon static since the coming of
the v/hite man, except for the Laguna Madre, which is a special case, and except in
areas where channels have been dug. In these areas silting has taken place. Grow-
th of oysters takes place both in the bade bays and the coastal lagoon. Oysters
growing in the back bays have to continually fight against silting and periodically
they are killed out by freshets every ten years or so. The Texas oyster grov?s al-
most at the extreme southerly part of its range and conditions in Texas undergo
large changes every few years. This holds true especially along the drier portion
of the Texas coast. From East Texas to South Texas along the coast, the climate
changes and four separate climatic divisions which range from humid to arid have
been designated by Thornthv/aite . The arid part covers the Laguna Madre v.'here salini-
ties of the bay sometimes reach a point three timcg as high as sea water.

Today Matagorda Buy is the center of oyster production in Texas and the quants'-
of the Karankawa Bay oyster, under the best conditions, is probably not excelled by
those from any area of the Gulf Coast. Galveston Bay is the other main producing
area, but this part of the Texas coast is also the most heavily industrialized and
the most polluted. Aside from the main question, it seems to be true that the fla-
vor of the Gulf Coast oyster is different from that of the Chesapeake oyster and a
person v/ho is accustomed to one will prefer \t to the otlier. This difference pro-
bably derives from differences in the specie-s of diatoms eaten by oysters in the
two localities.

Gunter's Address — Page 2

Texas is one of the fev>r remaining states in the union whose oyster produc-
tion comes almost completely from natural reefs. In 1904- the Texas coast produced
approximately 200,000 barrels of oysters. That was the peak year. Since t.hat
iiirae production has steadily declined until today it only amounts to 50^000 bar-
rels annually. It may be said that production is at a very low stage. The im-
provement and increase in Texas oyster prciuction lies in short in two things; first-
better control of the natural reefs, and, second, introduction of oyster cultiva-
tion.

Oystermen should be required by law to use a culling hatchet when culling

oysters for the market. Today any tool is used, from a leaf of an automobile spring

to a ball pein hammer. Therefore, many of the culls are destroyed before being re-
turned to the water.

. Many reefs in shallow vrater are not fished and are overcrovjded, so that the
oysters are poor, misshapen, small and of nc utility v;hatsoever. This is because
dredging is not permitted in ?;ater less than six feet in depth. This law was
passed m.any years ago to protect the tongers from the competition of the dredgers.
..ince that time the tonger has become a thing of the past on the Texas Coast, as a
class, and probably not more than a dozen full time oyster tongers remain in Texas.
Nevertheless, the old law has been changed and today many reefs in shallow water
are under-worked while many others in deeper water are overworked. As an answer to
this situation it has been suggested that the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission be
empowered to open or close any or all oyster reefs, regardless of depth of the wa-
ter, when inspection and examination of the reefs show that such action is neces-
sary or- will be beneficial,

Texas oyster laws v;ere designed to prevent a monoply in oyster cultivation
and promoters took advantage of the law preventing any one company or individual
from leasing more than 100 acres, by contracting to v/ork bottoms for leaseholders
who paid for the work. The promotional phase has run its course in Texas and finally
died out due to intrinsic handicaps of the total situation. Dr^ Paul S. Galtsoff has
t-ecommended laws which will prevent revival of the promctioiml phase.

The only reefs now leasable for cultivation are those with no history or only
long past history of oyster oroduction. Obviously, such bottoms are not productive
and some relaxation of the rigid laws governing leasing are advisable to permit
utilization of bottoms with better prospects of production.

There are many problems of oyster cultivation in Texas that are unsolved and
many v/hich, doubtless, are unrecognized and unknown. This program v/ill result in
better care of the natural oyster roefs. Encouragement of oyster cultivation should
^e carried cut by the enactment of certain less restrictive laws and by an experi-
mental study of oyster culture conditions in Texas. These tv/o combined activities
comxjrise the only action that can be taken to replenish the depleted oyster resour-
ces of the State.

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 1943

SHELLFISH PROGRAM OF THE CHESAPEAKE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

G. Francis Beaven, Resident Manager
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Md.

The research program of the Chesapeako Biological Laboratory during the past
year has, as is true of nearly all other activities, been markedly affected by war-
time conditions. The loss of two staff members, coupled v;ith travel and equipment
restrictions, prevented the completion of much of the oyster research planned for
1942. Hovrever, several nev/ oyster investigations were initiated, and continued ob-
servations were made of local spat-fall and state wide oyster set on shell plantings.
In addition to oyster work, investigations regularly carried on by the staff embrace
fish, crab, plankton, diatom, pollution and other studies. The necessity for coope-
rative assistance among staff members on many of these projects has made it impos-
sible for any one to give his full time to oyster research.

During the summer of 1942 routine sampling for oyster larvae was carried on at
Solomons throughout the season. Vifater temperatures at the end of the Laboratory pier
averaged 20°C or above from May 21st to Oct. 10th, indicating approximately the nor-
mal spawning season. Local oysters were very thin and watery at the beginning of
the summer, a carry over from the extremely poor condition of oysters during the
preceding winter. Probably in large part as a result of this condition, oyster lar-
vae failed to appear in abundance at any time during the season at this location.
A very few lunbo larvae were found in samples taken around June 15th, August 4th and
September 22nd. A few spat set on experimental shells during the August 4th and
September 22nd periods. When examined in late fall, a nearby state shell planting
of 18,564 bushels was found to have a catch of only 12 spat per bushel. Similar
poor setting conditions prevailed in most waters of the State that season.

Counts of the spat on all state shell plantings were made in early v;inter in
cooperation with the Department of Tidewater Fisheries. St. Marys River, an estuaiy
of the Potomac, and Eastern Bay, a shallow protected area in the upper part of the
Chesapeake, again produced the heaviest sets and shov/ definite potentialities as
seed areas. In a few other localities shells iiecured light sets, but sufficient for
paying production with the shells remaining v.'hei'a planted. Plantings in Chesapeake
Bay proper, Tangier Sound and the larger rivers failed to secure adequate sets.
Throughout the State the set ?/as found to have taken place mostly from about mid-
season to very late.

The results from shell plantings this year demonstrate once more that the bulk
of our shells should be placed on those areas most suitable for the production of
seed oysters. Sufficient brood stock must, of course, be present. From such plan-
tings the shells, after they have seciored an adequate strike, can be transplanted to
the many depleted bottoms of the State Avhich are knovm to offer favorable conditions
for growth. It is hoped that such a policy can be more largely entered upon in the
future. Past records have shown that indiscriminate shell plantings throughout the
State on depleted bars have yielded, for the most part, little or no return.

Although legal restrictions preventing the removal by the State of oysters from
the waters of one county to those of another have greatly hampered the development of
seed areas, three of the 1942 plantings v/ero made v?ith the express purpose of produ-
cing seed which could be transplanted within certain limitations. Tvro of those plan-
tings received good, though not exceptionally heavy sets. In deciding whether or not
such shells should be moved vath the oysters as spat or should be left a year in order
to produce larger seed, it is important to know the mortality likely to occur as well

Beaven's Address — Pape 2

as the density of the set. General observations have indicated that in very light
sets, due to the few oyster enemies present in the brackish waters of the State,
little mortality occurs after the first fall. On a moderately heavy set in 19A0,
where the shells had remained undisturbed, approximately one-third of the spat had
died at the end of the second season. One of the 19^2 shell plantings has been
carefully checked this spring for over-ivinter mortality. With an original count of
716 spat per bushel, V^.lS were foimd to have died when examined en May 10th. The
set had been a late one and the spat averaged about one inch when measured this
spring. This and other plantings will be carefully checked this season and future
records accumulated so that normal raort.a.litie:' r.^c'cr different conditions can be
determined. The additional powers gran+.c' r./ix:.: yeo.r to the Department of Tidewater
Fisheries will permit the more extensive development and use of seed areas in the
future. More intensive study of the factors influencing setting in these areas will
be undertaken .

In contrast to the poor condition of oysters in early summer they v;ere excep-
tionally fat throughout the State when the season opened in the fall. This seems
to have been due largely to the unusually abundant blooms of dinoflagellates which
occurred throughout the Bay and tributaries during the late summer months and early
fall. Large areas of reddish brown water, caused by quantities of these organisms,
v;ere frequently observed in the Patuxent River and on the Bay during hydrographic
sampling trips. Diatoms of the genus Skeletonema , said to produce excellent ffcivor
in oysters, were also quite abundant in the fall and early winter. A series of sto-
mach examinations were instituted and continued during the fall until winter hiber-
nation. These gave ample proof of the importance of these two forms in the oyster's
diet at this time. If personnel permits, it is planned that such qualitative stu-
dies of stomach content may be continued over several seasons and correlated, if
possible, with the condition and fecundity of oysters.

In conjunction with an investigation of pollution effects in lower Baltimore
Harbor, an effort was made to determine whether or not nearby bars in the upper Bay
were being affected. The major pollutant dumped in this area consists of copperas
(ferrous sulphate) which is produced in large quantities as a by-product in the
manufacture of titaniim dioxide, a paint pigment, and in the pickling of steel pre-
paratory to galvanizing or plating. This ferrous sulphate hydrolyzes and oxidizes
rapidly after being released, resulting in a marked lov/ering of the pH and oxj'-gen
content of the v/ater. Fortunately, the areas where this occurs are local and highly
industrialized so that no commercial fisheries are affected. Hovfever, a flocculant
precipitate of ferric hydroxide is formed v/hich settles slowly, and, v;hile not toxic,
might cause the carrying do^TO of plani-:ton -.rranisms or excessive silting. By means
of water sampling and special sediment collectors a survey of the extent of this
pollution was made. The findings to date indicate that all of the oyster bars are
well outside the affected area and that settling is ccmpleto before the sluggish ti-
dal movements have carried the T/ater m.asses far from, the sources of pollution.
Plankton is carried down to a certain extent, especially the filamentous diatoms
and those having long processes. However, due to the richness of this polluted area
in nutrient salts, or because of seme other factor, reproduction seems to be so sti-
mulated that normal and sometimes high courlts are obtained from the water in heavily
polluted zones.

As an extension of this work a series of spectrographic analyses of vjater and
oyster samples from the entire State Vi'as inaugurated. In addition to disclosing
evidence of polluti'.in, it vjas hoped that plotting the occurrence of trace elements
in the different regions m.ight shew some correlation with oyster spavming and lar-
vae survival. Only a few spectrographic analyses were made -when the needs of war
research made it impossible to obtain further use of a spectrograph for this work
until after the emergency. Examination of spectrographic plates made from t;venty

Heaven's Address — Page 3

oyster samples taken at widely scattered points showed the presence as trace ele-
ments of iron, nickel, silicon, aluminum, manganese, magnesium, titanium and phos-
phorus. These were all uniformly distributed. Silver and zinc were present in
greater quantity in samples from the tv;o bars nearest Baltimore. Vanadium was also
found in the upper Bay samples. Copper was generally in greater abundance in the
bay samples than in those taken from the tributaries. The elements named were the
ones whose lines were measured vdth a densitometer. When further examination of the
plates can be made, others may be determined. The spectrographic plates and ash
samples are being stored in the hope that this study may be renewed and extended
when future conditions permit.

Since the sex ratios among oysters according to their size have been found to
be somevifhat dependent on environmental conditions, a study of such ratios in local
oyster populations was begun last fall. Insufficient data have been gathered from
v/hich to drav; any conclusions at present. Plans have been made to carry out this
investigation more extensively in the future. It is hoped that the findings may be
of value in selecting for brood stock oysters having the most effective sexual com-
position for efficient reproduction.

During the past tvfo winters abnormal oyster mortalities have been reported from
a number of bars in different parts of the State. Investigations indicate that a
number of local factors may have been involved. However, it v;as observed that in-
fections by Nematopsis were present on all of the bars examined and in certain cases
may have contributed largely to the losses. A more extensive survey of the distri-
bution of this parasite and degree of infection in various parts of the State is
planned for this year.

Naval operations have resulted in some destruction of natioral oyster rocks.
The Laboratory has conducted surveys of the extent of such damage and aided in the
estimation of the value of the oysters and rocks destroyed.

In line with the demand for greater food production, an oyster program is being
formulated in cooperation with the Fish and Vifildlife Service. This involves a gene-
ral survey of all oyster producing regions of the State. Oyster populations, seed
production, physical condition of the bars, and methods of obtaining maxim\im yields
are to be studied. The Laboratory also plans to investigate the possibility of more
effective utilization of the soft shell clam or raanninose.

As a result of the appropriation of badly needed funds by the 19A3 Legislature
it will be possible to carry on our oyster program and other research much more ef-
fectively in this and future years. Four new biologists will be added to the staff
together with needed maintenance workers and helpers. One of these biologists v/ill
devote his entire time to oyster vrork and will have the cooperative assistance of
others as needed. Aside from the handicap of war limitations and manpower shortages,
Marj'-land seems on the threshold of a far more comprehensive and coordinated program
of study and management of our natural resources than at any time in the past.

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 194-3

SHELLFISH RESEARCH PROGRAfA OF THE VIRGINIA FISHERIES LABORATORY

of the
Commission of Fisheries and the College of William and Mary

CURTIS L. NEWCOMBE, Director
Virginia Fisheries Laboratory

The urgent need for increasing food production throughout the nation gives
reason for examining existing seafood resources from three points of view; One in-
volves a consideration of how the existing supply may be increased, i.e., vfhat me-
thods can be employed to substantially increase the present supply j a second problem
is the old question of adequate protection of the existing supply while production
proceeds at varying levels of intensity. An evaluation of current industrial prac-
tices sometimes proves to be a necessary consideration. A third consideration in-
volves the quantity of seafood present and the quantity that can be removed imme-
diately without endangering the future supply.

These three considerations are of basic importance to the Commission* s research
program, particularly that planned for the current season. I shall refer briefly to
the oyster studies being conducted by R. Winston Menzel, work on the crab by M. San-
doz and S. H. Hopkins and the experiments on the culture of the ribbed mussel by
George M. Moore.

Referring first to the oyster, I may point out that since 1912 oyster production
in Virginia has dropped about 60 percent from about 43 million pounds to 17.7 rail-
lions in 194-0. The large acreage of unproductive oyster bottom in our state is well
known to most of you. To restore many of these barren or partially barren bottoms is
an established policy of the Commission of Fisheries. Small scale experiments v/ere
conducted in 194-1 and 1942 to determine the best time to plant shells. Time and
amount of "strike" were observed and also the percent survival during the grov^ing
season. Winter survival in the case of young oysters was also determined. The ex-
periments seemed to indicate that in the locale of the experiments (at Seaford, Vir-
ginia) , vihile there was a relatively large strike throughout the summer and fall, the
late summer and early fall plantings yielded by far the best results. The results of
these preliminary experiments stress the importance of fouling organisms in limiting
survival of "spat" during the period when "r/Lrike" was greatest, and suggest that
August and September may be the best times for planting. The program for the coming
season includes a continuation of these experiments hut on a small commercial scale
in the York and Rappahannock Rivers, and designed to show the best time, number of
shells and type of bottom for planting purposes. I may add here that the planting of
seed oysters is done on a rather large scale as a part of our repletion program. Ex-
periments to signify the number of bushels per acre that need to be planted to assure
best results in terms of meat weight are projected for the present season.

Virginia's worst enemy of the oyster is the screivborer. Last season's work de-
monstrated the efficacy of drill traps for controlling its infestations on submerged
bars in Hampton Roads. The cooperative assistance of local planters in that area
made it possible to estimate the means and cost of drill control through the trapping
methods so successfully worked out in New Jersey. This summer experiments will be
continued on ways of reducing the spread of screwborors from, infected to uninfected
bars during transplantation.

From a standpoint of food production the blue crab is a major fishery of the
Chesapeake, amounting in 1939 to over 50 million pounds and fairly equally distri-
buted between Maryland and Virginia. During the past two decades there have been

Newcombe's Address — Page 2

pronounced fluctuations in the catches generally attributed to weather conditions
and industrial practices. From 1939 to 3 940 the crab catch declined nearly 40^ in
Maryland and 1G% in Virginia, according to available Federal statistics. Recently,
There has been a significant increase in voJ.ujne produced. At the request of the
Hampton Crab Packers Association the 'State Commission established in 194-1 s-nd main-
tained thereafter, a rather large crab sanctuary at the mouth of the Bay to protect
the brood stock. The extent and importance of this sanctuary is, seemingly, one de-
serving attention. To determine the value of this body of v.-ater for the hatching
and larval development of the crab, studies have been carried out since 194-1 aiming
to define the environmental conditions most suitable for embryonic and larval deve-
lopment. It was first necessarj'- to estot^lish beyond question the identity of the
blue crab larvae and then to devise a means of hatching them out in large quantities
for purposes of studying their preferences and tolera.tion points v/ith respect to the
salinity and temperature factors. Thus far it has been found that, as far as stages
up to and including the third zoeal stage, are concerned, the range of optimum tem-
perature and salinity corresponds v-'ith environmental conditions prevailing in the
sanctuary during simmer. As larval development advances tlie optimum range of salini-
ty for the more advanced stages seems to narrov; dovm considerably. This summer an
effort will be made to identify and rear the remaining soeal stages and define their
optimum ranges with respect to salinity and temperature. In light of these experi-
mental findings, it appears that Virginia is now m.aking a major contribution to the
maintenance of a high level of crab production for the future without seriously cur-
tailing the overall output at the present time.

At this point, I may mention the loss to the soft crab fishery of Virginia aris-
ing from holding crabs on shedding floats. Our preliminary observations made in 1941
indicated that an important factor, in addition to the condition of the crab when
placed on the float, may be responsible for the mortality rates. Available evidence
strongly suggests that crabs during the moulting process have a much higher oxygen
demand than at other times. Yet, ?;e have found during August that in some commercial
floats the oxygen content of the v/ater is far beloA? that of the water outside but
nearby the float. Talks ;vith crabbers and prelim.inar>' data on the subject lead me
to believe that the supply of oxygen available to crabs kept on commercial floats la
a factor worthy attention in any attempt to reduce current losses in shedding crabs.
This summer, therefore, further observations will be made on floats in the Rappahan-
nock River and at Cape Charles. It would seem that attention should be given to
placing floats where there is adequate v/ater movement and also to making a change in
the construction of float so as to give better aeration for the shedding crab. It
is particularly important at this time to prevent the loss through improper methods
of handling of crabs alreadjj" produced.

I shall turn now to make a brief mention of the Laboratory's program of study
on the Biology of the Ribbed Mussel that Dr. Moore is conducting. Tv;o years ago it
vms my privilege to tell you of our work on this highly interesting and important
bivalve that occurs in Virginia and the Carolinas. In ray opinion, no single one of
our fisheries is playing or is destined to play a greater role in the war effort. Be-
ing the major natural animal source of available provitamin D, we are confronted with
the need for a basis on >vhich first, to regulate the use of the existing supply and
second, to supplement the natural supply by cultural practices. The present program
calls for testing out on a small commercial scale varying types of "cultch" found thus
far to be the best. Also, transplantation experiments are in progress designed to
test out the possibilities for utilising for seed purposes the fairly large numbers
of small mussels that will otherwise never be gathered.

In my opening remarks I referred to tliroe basic economic considerations: one in-
volving how the existing supply may be increased and I had in mind the oyster industry
of Virginia; a second consideration, dealing with giving adequate protection to the
existing supply while production is permitted to continue, applies to the Virginia
crab fishery. The third and last consideration invnlv«R an analysis "f the quantity
of available product and the amount that it is possible to remove without endangering
the future supply. In this category belongs the ribbed mussel. The Laboratory's
program is aimed tov/ard the fulfillment cf these considerations.

National Shellfiuheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 194-3

V. L. Loosanofx

In Charge, Milfoi*d Biological Laboratory

U. 3. Fish and Wildlife Service

A year ago I had the opportunity to bring before the menbers of this convention
the subject of cviltivation of the sea mussel, M. edulis . In my address I tried to
emphasize the fact that because of the war demands any new source of food that could
be developed would be of significant importance. The opinion v;as expressed that
seeking and developing such sources shotild be considered a major task by the persons
engaged in food research of any kind. Attention was called to the fact that in the
case of shellfisheries we may do our share by advocating the use of our sea mussels
or, as they are more often called, black mussels. At that time, as will be remem-
bered, the mussel fishery was virtually non-existent.

Prior to developing the fisheries on a broad scale it ivas considered necessary
to ascertain the quantity of mussels of a marketable size available on the natxoral
beds along the Noi-th Atlantic coast. To accomplish this, a series of surveys was
undertaken. The chief purpose of these surveys was to determine the location of
large mussel beds, and to estimate their population. The information obtained was
to be made available to the men v/ho intended tc engage in mussel fishery. Further-
more, the data secured during the surveys coiild serve in the future, as a basis for
formulating regulations for the mussel fishery.

During the past year stirveys of mussel resources have been conducted in the
States of New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts o,nd Maine. Because
of the lack of personnel these ."surveys are not completed. Nevertheless, the infor-
mation thus far obtained is sufficient to foi'm general conclusions in regard to the
mussel resources.

In aLnost all instances the conducting of the surveys v/as made possible because
of the cooperation of the fisheries and conservation authorities of the states named.
Surveys in Massachusetts and Maine were caiTied on under the direction of Mr.
Herringten of the North Atlantic Fishery Investigation.

It is perhaps more convenient to begin a description of the survey by starting
v/ith Long Island Sound and proceeding north. Our survey of that body of v/ater,
although still incomplete, shows, nevertheless, that the Soiind is not very rich in
mussels. However, in the course of our v^ork several large beds were encountered,
each being of such dimensions that lii-nited fishing could be considered profitable
from a commercial vievrpoint. One such bed was found outside the New Haven break-
water; another at Point No Point near the n>.;.ti.;ral oyster bed, and the third near
Penfield Reef. Unfortunately, these three beds were severely damaged by winter
storms and one of them almost completely disappeared. There were several other
considerably smaller beds located in other parts of the Sound along the Connecticut
shore, as v/ell as numerous scattered mixssel colonies in all bays and harbors. Hov;-
ever, taken as a v;hole, the Connecticut mussel resources are not large enough to
si.;pport mussel canneries. They may, nevertheless, materially contribute to the
fresh supply of shellfish sold at local markets.

Our estimates of the mussel resources of Connecticut, as virell as those of the
other states, do not include mussels vriiich are fovind living in so-called polluted
areas. In Connecticut large numbers of such mussels are found in the harbors of la.rge
cities, such as New Haven and Bridgeport, and in tho Housatonic and Westport Rivers.

Loosanoff's Address — Page 2

Although the mussels from such areas cannot be shipped directly to the markets they
may, nevertheless, be utilized in case of necessity by first being transplanted to
clean water areas for a sufficiently long period of time, and later sold as food.

Several medium-sized mussel beds are known to exist in the area confined between
Throg's Neck and Flushing. Hov.'ever, almost all these areas are closed to fishing
because of polution, and therefore they cannot bo regarded as important. Large beds
of good sized and good flavored mussels exist in the Oyster Bay and Cold Spring
Harbor districts. Perhaps this district is at present the most important mussel
producing center of Long Island.

Mussel beds are found in several localities along the northern shore of Long
Island. In Ncrthrup and Huntington Says, mussels set along the shore but, as a rule,
very few of them reach a large size. Beds of marketable sized mussels are also
encountered in Peconic Bay and Gardinei-s Bay but again these beds are not extensive
enough to promise a large supply of mussels either for canneries or markets. In
Great South Bay proper a good set of mussels occurred in the Siamraer of 194-1. They
grew very rapidly reaching the marketable size of 2 1/2 inches one year later.
However, almost all of them died dioring tho Eujicier and Fall of 19A2.

According to Mi'. Gibbs, Fish and Game Administrator for the State of Rhode
Island, who conducted a survey of Narragansett Bay, the mussel resources of that
body of water are perhaps even loss ahundant than those of Long Island Sound. The
results of the survey of Narragansett Bay showed that very extensive mussel beds,
which T/ore known to exist there tv;o or three years ago, were recently destroyed by
starfish, or disappeared because of some ether causes. The only exceptions were.
found in the case of a large area located south of Hcg Island, and in inshore areas
extending from Bristol Ferry to Comiaon Fence Point. Mussels collected there were
of an unusiaa,lly large size and of excellent quality. It is believed that E. B. Blount
and Sons vdll use the mussels from these beds for canning.

Results of tho survey of New York and tho scuthern New England states showed
that, in general, this area cannot be regarded as a chief source cf mussel supply
on our North Atlantic coast. It is true, nevertheless, that the mussel resources
of these three states, even if limited, should be cunsidered as capable of furnishing
a steady supply for retail trade. For instance, according to cur Market News
Service the quantity of mussels sold during 194-1 in Nev/ York City markets amounted to
approximately 41 j 000 bushels.

It is estimated that the quantity of marketable mussels now available along the
coast of Massachusetts may be between 250,000 and 350,000 bushels. The mussel re-
sovirces of Maine are considerably richer than those of the sections already discussed.
A survey of the mussel beds in Maine vras begun last fall and continued -until January.
The area covered by that survey extended from Penobscot Bay to Joncsport. Judging
by the character of the coast line this area is probably the richest mussel growing
section of the coast of Maine. According to Mr. Scattergood, who ccnductod the
survey, this entire section contained apprcxinatoly 315,000 bushels of marketable
mussels. It is quite possible that future surveys will locate good mussel beds in
other sections of the coast of Maine, such as Casco Bay and Booth Bay Harbor. I
doubt, hov/ever, that tho quantity of mussels of those districts vdll be equal to
that of the area confined betv;een Penobscot Bay and Jonesport. Even if we assume
thrt the supply of mussels in the areas to be surveyed will approach that of the
sections already covered then the total quantity of mussels of a marketable size
that we can count on from Maine will be approximately 650,000 bushels. Of this
quantity about 60,000 bushels of mussels cannot be used because they contain too many
pearls .

Loosanoff's Address — Page 3

Thus, according to information now available, we may assume that the supply of
marketable mussels on the beds of Nev^ York, Connecticut and Rhode Island is between
250,000 and 350,000 bushels. About the same quantity may be obtained from the mussel
beds of Massachusetts. The waters of Maine may yield another 500,000 or, in the best
case, 750,000 bushels. Therefore, we may conclude that the total supply of market-
able able mussels obtainable from the North Atlantic waters is approximately 1 1/2
million bushels. This figvire does not include the mussels of polluted areas, nor -
those of numerous small beds, utilization of which would be difficult and costly.

When starting our work on mussels about 3 years ago v»e vjere under the impres-
sion that the supply of mussels available from our coastal waters was somewhere
betv/een 10 and 15 mdllion bushels. The fact that the present supply of mussels is
actually much smaller than anticipated may necessitate the revision of some of the
plans for the utilization of these animals.

As was mentioned above, during the past year mussels began to be used on a
comparatively large scale. In addition to those sold in the markets of large cities,
a considerable quantity of them are now being processed. Thei^e are several establish-
ments in the State of Maine '.vhidh are already canning these animals. I understand
that the largest portion of the product so prepared will be t\arned over to Lend-
Lease authorities. Several other concerns arc preparing pickled mussels.

Since there is only a limited supply of mussels, and because most of the mussel
beds are so located that they can be easily worked on, these beds may be rapidly
depleted. It is true that after the easily obtainable supply is exhausted, additional
deep vfater beds may be discovered and their mussel population utilized. However, such
beds, no ^doubt, will also be quickly depleted. As a result, at the end of a com-
paratively short period, the newly created mussel industry will be faced with lack
of these animals and may experience a crisis. Therefore, since the utilization of
mussels is increasing, and because the value of this source of food begins to acquire
more importance, it becomes necessary to begin planning for a rational utilization and
conservation of these mollusks.

Studies on the biology of mussels, carried on by our Service during the last
several years, resulted in the accumulation of data v/hich at this time permit us to
speak intelligently about many phases related to the utilization and conservation of
these animals. One of the first questions vrtiich had to be ansv;ered was when during
the year mussels are at their best. Natui'ally, it is of advantage to utilize the mus-
sels for canning or sell them in a fresh condition during the period when the animals
are in their prime. It v/as found that,, as in the case of many mollusks of the same
group, seasonal variations in the condition of the mussel meats are very pronounced.
Of course, changes of this type depend to some extent upon the location of the mussel
beds. As a rule, mussels of warmer waters behave somewhat differently than the animalt
of colder, deep water beds. However, in all cases the cycle is very well defined, and
in each locality there is a definite period when mussels are fatter than at other
seasons of the year.

Contrary to conditions existing in oysters, which attain their prime in about
2 or 3 months after spavming, the mussels reach such conditions prior to their sparm-
ing activities.' According to studies carried on by Mr. Englc and me at our laboratory
during the last 2 years, it has been established that mussels of Long Island Sound
begin 'to approach their best condition during the early winter. From then on,
during late v;inter and spring, conditions of the mussel moats continuously improve
and they reach their maximum nutritive value just before the beginning of their
spawning season. Follovdng this maximum development of gonad tissue there is a dis-
charge of spa\'m, and the body of the animals begins to decrease in volume and Vireight.

Loosanoff s Address — Page L,

There is a difference of opinion as to temperature and time of the year at
which mussels begin to discharge thoir spavm. Some observers express the opinion
that the mussels of our waters spavm as early as February, when the v/ater temperature
is only several degrees above freezing. It is also believed that mussels may
spavm tvifice a year, ons in winter and once in summer. However, our examination of
the gonads of mussels collected at bi-weekly intervals throughout a period of tv/o
years, showed very definitely that spavming of the mussels of North Atlantic v;aters
occurs vAen the temperature of the surrounding vfater is approaching 60.0°F. This
usually takes place in late April, in May or early June, depending on localities.
There was no evidence wtiatsoevor that so-called winter spavming of mussels exists.

On the basis of our observations it can be recommended that the mussels should
be utilized during the period of 6 or 8 months v/hich precede the beginning of
mussel spawning. In some cases the condition of the mussels may remain excellent
during the first part of the spavming period, Virhen the gonads are only partially
discharged. Perhaps the animals can also be used during this time. As a rule,
however, throughout the late summer and early fall the mussels of Long Island Sound
are usually in a poor condition and it Vicould be disadvantageous to use them as food.

Another disadvantage of gathering and soiling raiissels in the simmer time is
that it will be necessary to expose the animals to a comparatively high air tempera-
ture for considerable periods of time. This is usually follov/ed by a significant loss
in weight and high mortality of the mussels. To obtain more accurate information
regarding this matter a series of experiments vfas carried on by Mr. Engle and me diarin^
the past Vv'inter. The chief purpose of these studies vras to determine the loss in
vireight and mortality of sea mussels kept in storage at different temperatures.
Common edible mussels, Mytilus edulis , approximately 2 l/2 years old and measuring
from 2 3/4 to 3 inches in length, Virere used in the experiments. Each sample of
mussels consisted of 100 individuals. The samples vrere exposed to temperatures of
30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0 and VO.OOp. j^ addition to the above mentioned samples,
one more group of mussels v;as kept outside during a severe cold spell then the air
temperature v;as at times as lovi? as 0.0°F.

The results of the experiment indicated that Viritliin the range of 30.0 to
70.0°F. the loss in v;eight and mortality of mussels increased v;ith the increase in
temperature. The experiments may be summarized as follov/s:

Rapidly frozen mussels lost little vreight while in a frozen condition. Upon
thavfing all animals were found dead. Rapid loss in v^eight followed thav/ing.

Yflien exposed to air temperatures of 30.0, 4-0.0, 50.0, 60.0 and 70.0°F. the
mussels suffered the greatest loss in weight dtiring the first 24-hour period. This
loss was due to the escape of shell fluid.

At the end of the experiments in v/hich the mussels were exposed to air tempera-
tures ranging from 30.0 to 70.0"^., the loss in weight of the samples reached from
43 to 47 percent cf the initial total weight.

Mortality of mussels began later and proceeded more slowly at lower tempera-
tures. The first cases of mortality at temperatures of 30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0,
and 70.0°F. were recorded on the 14th, 8th, 7th, 5th and 4th day respectively.

Loosanoff's Address — Page 5

Fifty percent of the mussels exposed for 30 days to a temperature of 30.0°F.
were still alive at the end of that period. At tempera tiu-es of 4.0.0, 50.0, 60.0
and 70.0^. the last animals of the sample;:, died during the 22nd, 15th, 11th and
8th day respectively. The experiments shov;ed very clearly that it is most advantageout
to handle and ship mussels at air temperatures ranging from 30.0 to 4-0. 0°F.

One of the outstanding characteristics of mussel beds is that they are very
unstable. It is a y/ell knovm fact that very cfton the population of large mussel
beds may disappear within a brief period of tjjne. V«'e have observed a number of such
pheonomena taking place in various parts of Long Island Sound. This is especially
true of the beds that are exposed at low water stages. Such bods are very often
destroyed by heavy ice, or the mussels are winter-killed.

Deep water beds also suffer a similar fate by being destroyed during heavy
storms 'when the wave action is strong enough to tear the mussels from the bed and
carry them ashore where they perish. As is the case with all coimnercial shellfish,
mussels have their enemies too. In Connecticut and New York v/aters starfish destroy
an exceedingly large number of mussels, -whereas in Maine sea urchins also contri-
bute to the mortality of these mollusks.

In general, ho-.vever, mussels are hardy animals. Our experiments conducted
during the past year indicated that if mussels are protected from their enemies and
the elements, the mortality rate among then is relatively low. In one series of
experiments, which was recently completed, we learned that the mortality among a
large number of mussels kept suspended at mean lo7/ virater mark was only 5 percent for
the entire year. The sample located at the bottom in 6 feet of water shov/ed, during
the same period of time, a higher mortality amounting to about 12 percent. However,
in the case of a sample which was kept at +5 tidal elevation, and ?;hich was exposed
to freezing temperature, the mortality v/as 100 percent.

If the mussel fishery is to be maintained on a comparatively large scale
and if the depletion of coimnercial beds should be avoided, protective steps shoiild
be taken at the earliest possible time. Several such measures which can be applicable
to all mussel-producing districts may be suggested. It is thought that setting
aside certain areas to serve as spawning beds should be practiced. In places where
some of the beds have a considerable number of mussels possessing pearls such beds
should be set aside for spavming purposes. It should also be advocated that,
whenever practicable, culling of mussels should be conducted on the beds, and
all undersized animals should be throwTi back to propagate and grow. Developing
various devices for the collection of mussel set, on which I reported at the last
convention, may also be profitably practiced in many localities.

It is thought that for the protection of mussel bods a closed season should
be established in each area where mussels are obtained for commercial purposes. We
think that such closed seasons should begin soon after the mussels commence to dis-
charge their spawn and continue until the end of the setting season. The establish-
ment of the closed seasons is desirablo because, if mussel bods 3.re left undisturbed
during the setting period, the young mussels will have a better opportunity to sur-
vive and to grovif to marketable size. Work on the beds, expecially on those exposed
at low water stages, will londoubtedly resu].t in the destruction of a very large number
of tender yc;;ing mussels.

Our knowledge on the setting time of mussels is not very extensive. It is quite
certain, ho\/ever, that the spawning and setting of mussels begin and end at different
times in different localities. Thus far, we have only one summer of observations on

Locsanoff's Address-Page 6

the setting of mussels in Milford Harbor. Perhaps the data obtained are not typical
for other localities. It may be th it the setting of last summer was not typical
even for Milford Harbor. However, since we are continuing the study, we shall even-
tually secure enough information to possess sufficient knowledge as to the setting
periods of mussels.

Our studies of 19A2 were designed to determine the beginning and end of the
setting season of mussels, and to determine at what particular part of the season
the setting was most intense. We were also trying to determine at what tidal levels
the mussels set in largest morabers. The collectors were placed in the v/ater on
April 27, but no set was recorded until the first vraek of June. The setting was
most intense between June 15 and July 6. The heaviest set took place on the collec-
tors placed near the bottom below low Virater mark. After July 6 it began rapidly to
decrease in number, and the last mussel set was recorded on August 31. Thus, the
length of the setting period of mussels in 1942 v;as approximately from June 1 to the
end of August, a period of only 3 months.

Studies of the above mentioned nature, if conducted in all areas where mussels
are abundant and are utilized on a commercial scale, would greatly help In formu-
lating policies for the conservation of mussels, and -would undoubtedly result in a
more profitable and rational utilization of our mussel resources.

National Shellfiyheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 19A3

BLACK QUAHAUGS

Harold K. Gibbs, Ar'.iLiinistrator

Office of Fish & Game

State Department of Agriculttire and Conservation

Providence, Rhode Island

fll-iode Island has long been noted fur its oyster industry and for the other
varieties of shellfish v/hich Narragansett Bay produces in abundance and for which
the State is justly proud.

Over the years our iiard clam fishery has steadily increased in volume.
Recently, due to the demands for food and more food, prices of hard clams increased,
the fishery attracted more men and boats and at the last session of the Legisla-
ture our State lav/s vrere amended extending the open season vdien quahaugs could be
taken by dredges and also opening new areas to dredging.

Vife have, hov/ever, a closed season on dredging. Tho trade is supplied by the
"free fishermen" who catch quahaugs with rakes and tongs. As many of these free
fishermen vrere working at other trades the problem has been met, in part, by utiliz-
ing the Black Quahaug (Cyprina Islandica) .

All along the Rhode Island coast line is found this species of shellfish which
resembles in many vrays the common quahaug or hard clam, (Venuw^j Mercenaria) . The
ocean quahaug is a dark brown in color, the older individuals are almost black, and
the meats are slightly yello«/er.

Everyone who has fished in '*cutside waters" has known of these clams but to my
knowledge, no attempt had ever been made to utiiir.o them commercially, although the
possibilities of putting then on the market have been discussed a good many times.
There had never been any good reason to try to commercialize these black quahaugs —
there had always been ample supplies of the regiilar quahaugsj no one had used them for
food, there was too much sales resistance for such an untried product.

After my Division had exhausted the possibilities of finding mussels in suffi-
cient quantities to interest the producers, (the starfiG;h had nearly wiped out our
once v/ell-populated beds) and after we had looked into the dehydration of certain types
of "trash fish" that are taken in huge quantities by c^ur comraercial fish traps, we
again turned our attention to the black quahaugs.

The Narragansett Marine Laboratory, under the direction of Dr. Charles Fish had
already spent a year in scientific research in this field.

We suggested to one of the dealers that here T/as a product that had possibilities.
Ue Ziiust have put on a good sales talk for a dredge boat was sent outj they could be
taken v/ith little change in the gear or equipment used for catching hard clams; there
were some extensive beds. Tho clams could bo shucked as easily as the quahaugs and
above all, it was proved by all the good chov;der fiiakers in the tovm that black quahaugs
were good to eat — they vieve delicious.

The boats were sent out, they came back with 125 to 150 bushels each day. They
were put on the market and sold. They v/ore used by the Army in their menus. One shop
was opening several hundred gallons each day. The Black Quahaug had arrived.

This is r.till a new pi-oduct and many problems have arisen and will continue to
present themselves for a solution. It may be that it is too sc'on to make statement
that may have to be modified later. It is also possible that v;e have made a valuable,
contribution tc the War Effort.

National Shellfisheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 19A3

PROGRESS OF STUDIES IN UTILIZATION OF STARFISH

By C. F. Lee and J. M. Lemon
Fish & Wildlife Service

At the meeting of the Associations last year, a resume of the technological
studies of interest to the oyster industry was presented. Included in this paper was
a brief report of the progress made in finding commercial use for the natural enemies
of the oyster, particularly the starfish. It v;as also reported that the research
work on the oysters was being continued, and that progress had been made toward
satisfactory means of evaluating the relative quality of oysters during periods of
shipment. Due to the declaration of war, it was found to be advisable to revise
the oyster research program and devote a greater portion of the effort to finding
shipping containers of non-critical material which can be substituted for tin con-
tainers.

The studies dealing with that portion of the oyster research specifically related
to the nutritive value of oysters has been continued. Thus far it has been found
that oysters contain appreciable quantities of vitamins A, B Complex and D, and that
the food value is not adversely affected by freeaing and storing over long periods
of time. These studies have not been completed.

The technologists of the service have also been called upon to furnish the
purchasing officers of the Army and Navy with information as to indices for judging
the quality of oysters, as vrell as other seafoods being purchased for consumption by
the armed forces. This has enabled the Fish & Yifildlife Service to suggest methods
of judging quality v/hich were practical and would guarantee palatable shellfish
without being unduly conservative in making purchases.

The investigation directed toward utilization of the starfish has continued during
the past year, although limited essentially to feeding tests designed to determine
its value as a protein supplement. Several factors have served to iimit the extent
of the vJork done during this period*

During the season 19'U--A2, to review briefly, it v;as found that starfish meal
could be prepared experimentally from raw starfish in the ratio of about 1 ton of
meal from 3 tons of drained fish. As taken directly from the boats this ratio; vrould
probably be at least 1 to A, or less. The meal was found to contain on an average of
28 percent protein, 8 percent oil, and 58 to 60 percent mineral matter, largely
calcium carbonate. The protein vras found by rate feeding tests to be 76 percent
digestible and have a biological value of 8^. percent, which indicates a rather high
grade protein suitable for use in farm animal rations.

It was also found that fresh starfish oil had loss than 1000 International Units
vitamin A per gram and that vitamin B^ or thiamin was absent from the fresh fish.
Starfish oil, arao\anting to from 2 to 2.5 percent of the fresh fish, contains abcut 10
percent of unsaponifiable matter including several unidentified sterols. A quantity
of this oil v;as prepared for Dr. Werner Bergman of Yale University to complete an
investigation of the structure and identity of those sterols. No recent report on
the progress of this investigation has been rocoived.

About a year ago, it appeared that starfish could best be used for the production
of a protein food supplement. Feeding tests using various levels of starfish meal
were conducted, using both rats and chicks. The first of these tests had not been

Lee and Lemon's Address — Page 2

concluded v/hen the earlier paper on this subject was presented in the 1942 Conven-
tion, and the last of them is still under way.

All control groups of chicks v/erc fed a 23 percent protein mash containing
pilchard meal as the source of animal protein. Four diets containing starfish
were fed; tvro contained 32 percent, a third 16 percent and the fourth 8 percent of
starfish meal. The diets vicre balanced to 23 percent protein content by variation
in the pilchard meal and com meal content. The 32 percent level of starfish was
selected to determine any adverse effect that would possibly be due to the high
quality ox mineral matter and oil in the meal.

The conclusion from this test v;as that starfish meal was a good source of
protein vjhcn used in relatively small amotmts of mash. Larger quantities produced
poor gro\rbh and high mortality, but the addition of thiamine improved the growth
rate so it v/as concluded that part of the difficiilty was due to vitamin deficiency.
In rat feeding tests starfish meal v/as fed to levels of 12, 24, and 48 percent, with
the protein content of the diets balanced in the same manner as used v/ith the chick
grov/ing mashes. Growth of all rats was v/as retarded to an extent roughly proportional
to the starfish meal content of the diet. The rats fed the highest level were
extremely stunted and emaciated, but otherwise normal. The addition of thiamin
to the diet did not result in any improvement either in condition or rate of growth,
in contrast to the result v/ith chicks. The digestibility of the meal v/as very
nearly the same at all three levels fed, averaging 30 percent, so that this could
not accoimt for their failiire to grow normally.

The chicks remaining from the before mentioned growth tests v/ere fed a commer-
cial mash for 5a months until laying age. Ten laying hens v/ere then divided into
tv/o groups and fed experimental laying mashes containing either starfish meal
sufficient to supply 2.5 percent protein as the only animal protein source, or
pilchard meal to an equal protein level plus f.ur percent ground oyster shell to
balance the calciuja carbonate content of the st;-.rfish.

Four hundred and thirty-six eggs v/ere produced by the starfish fed group against
4.13 produced by the pilchard fed hens. On tliO other hand, the average size of
eggs laid by the pilchard fed group v/as slightly larger, 42.8 grams compared to
51.2 grams for the starfish fed hens. It is doubtful that these differences can
be considered significant, and it may be assumed that starfish and pilchard meals
are of equal value as an animal protein source v/hen used in a laying mash at a
2,5 percent protein level.

Meanwhile a second feeding test with chicks was under way in v;hich starfish
meal v/as fed at 3.6 and 9 percent levels in a growing mash v/ith a pilchard control
fed group as before. In this test however, ground oyster shell v/as added to all
diets, so that each diet contained an equal calcivirn content as v/ell as having
approximately equal quantities of animal protein. After a seven v/eeks period the
average v/eights of the groups indicated tliat the starfish meal at both the 3.6
and 9 percent levels was a good protein supplement. The group fed 9 percent star-
fish was apparently receiving more than the optimiom level, although the growth rate
was still satisfactory. All groups gained more rapidly than the previous lot of
chicks, and v/ere in good condition. A second laying test was planned tc check the
previous observations. This group of hens has only recently started to lay, and
v/ere first fed the experimental mashes on May 1, so that it is much too early to
estimate the relative efficiency of these new mashes.

Lee and Lemon's Address — Page 3

All evidence to date, however, supports the conclusion that starfish meal can
be included in chick growing mashes as an animal protein source at levels up to
about 5 percent. In laying mash formulas, 8 to 9 percent starfish meal can be
used, supplying not only needed protein but also necessary calcium.

One ton of starfish meal therefore replaced 880 poimds of high grade pilchard
meal worth f?33 and 1120 pounds of oyster shell worth approximately $7, v/hich
equals $35 to $A0 per ton of meal. This value is low compared to a ceiling price
of about $75 a ton for 65% protein pilchard meal.

Another important factor in the production of meal is the available supply.
On several trips to the starfish infested area, inquiries have been made of boat
captains and plant managers to find out the quantity of starfish taken in the
course of normal operations. A large seed oyster company operating out of Milford,
Conn, with four boats fishing in vAat is considered one of the more heavily infested
areas, collected a total of 14-00 bushels of starfish during the five months period
between the past November 1 and April 1. The total trips "made were not stated, but
if the trips were only made one day in three, the daily catch per boat was only seven
bushels. On a previous trip to Milford, contacts wore made v;ith two boats d-uring
dredging operations to clean grounds, and in each case it was stated by the captain
that the usual daily cull of starfish from the dredge material was only five to six
bushels .

In New Haven three large oyster firms were contacted. In one plant current
figures average about one bushel per hour fishing effort. Other estimates v;ere
based on the number of drags vath the mops. Apparently the catch varied from less
than 5 to perhaps 60 bushels, v;ith 25 bushels at a high estimate of the average
daily catch per boat.

It if is assumed that fifteen bushels or 500 pounds of starfish are caught
per boat per day for the whole Connecticut area, the total daily production amounts
to about three tons of fresh starfish.

This would produce 1200 pounds per day i.ith a market value of about $25. This
compares with an operating cost per boat variously stated to be from $35.00 to
over $100 per day, or perjiaps $600 per day for the 12 boat starfishing fleet.
Actual production of meal, of course, would entail transportation to a central
point, costly drying and grinding operations, packaging and distribution costs.
Commercial fish meal plants in general utilize yi oducts having a much higher pro-
tein content, and in most cases having an oi]. ;;; -product that really pays the bill.
So far we have not been able to find a very valuable component in starfish.

Only one conclusion seems possible. Starfish are a menace to oyster beds.
Continual control efforts are necessary to avoid almost complete loss of set or
young oysters in certain areas. Important as thoy are in cost of irradi cation or
in potential destructi^i^n of oysters they are virtually insignificant in terms of
tons of meal, and future efforts may be more profitably devoted to finding better
and more economical methods for their elimination.

' National fiielli'isheries Association, Philadelphia Meeting, June 194-3

SMIT..iVRY CONDITIONS AT OiSTisR PLANTS TO MEET APAIY REQUIREMENTS

Colonel Frank H. Woodruff, Service Command
Veterinarian, Third Service Command,
Baltimore, Md.

Since the outbreak of the presant war the Armed Forces of the United States
have become the largest single consumer of foodstuffs. You have heard the fishery
requirements as explained by the chief of the Office of the Quartermaster General.

That office is concerned with the procurem.ent , storage and issue of immense
quantities of perishable food and must maintain close supervision and inspection of
each item from production to issue to insure the uninterrupted flow of proper amounts
of the many items in their best possible condition.

All foods prociored for the Army are inspected with two objects in mind:

First: To protect the health of troops against disease transmitted tlrirough
spoiled, damaged or contaminated foodstuffs.

Second: To protect the financial interests of the Government by determining
that the quality of the product complies with the contract requirements.

Foods of animal origin which comprise a large percentage of perishable food-
stuffs are inspected by the Veterinary Corps of the United States Array. In accom-
plishing the First Objective, - protection of the health of troops, this inspection
is a direct extension nf the sanitary service cf the Medical Department, United
States Army. The Second Object, - determination of quality ordinarily is carried on
simultaneously ¥Jith the first and in its accomplishmont the Veterinary Corps inspec-
tor acts in an advisory capacity to the contracting officer.

Among the products of animal origin listed in Army Regulations we find fish and
otner seafoods; and their inspection is carried out according to the same general
plan as other products in this class. The inspection plan divides itself into three
phases:

First: An inquiry into the general sanitation of the producing plant or es-
tablishment including the source of rav; material.

Second: A supervision of processing and manufacture.

Third: Inspection for compliance with standards of quality set up in the piir-
chase instrument and specifications cited threin.

Let us consider these three phases according to the methods followed in their
accomplishment vfith special emphasis on shellfish establishments. The first step
necessary is the request for Army inspection. This is initiated by the dealer or
vendor in the form of a letter addressed to the Commanding General of the Service
Conmiand in v;hose area the vendor's establishment is located geographically. This
letter should indicate the desire for invSpection, a brief description of the plant's
capacity, its exact location including that of any subsidiary plants v/hich are to be
utilized and the exact commoditj'- or conmioditics which are to be offered for purchase.
As soon as possible follovang such request, an inquiry is made including state and
Federal regulatory agencies charged Vifith inspection of the subject commodity. In
the case of shellfish plants the State authorities, the United States Public Health
Service and the Pure Food and Drug Administration are consulted. At the same time a

srlf

Ftoodruff's Address~Pat,e 2

phyc3ical inspection of the establishment for v;hich request was made is carried out.
The Army Medical Dept. has not set up detailed requirements of it:: ovm with refe-
rence to oyster plant sanitation. We use as a cuide the revision in force of "The
U. S. P. H. S. Minimum Requirements for Endorsement of State Shellfish Control Mea-
sures and Certifications for Shippers in Interstate Commerce." These are the re-
ciuirenents endorsed by State Health Officers of the various states and fire exactly
the same as govern the shipment to normal market outlets.

In general our experience has been that v;e have found the various plants com-
plying with these requirements, especially after the first few weeks of the oyster
season. At the beginning of the season as a result of conversion of the plants
from packing ether seafoods to oyster packing some exceptions have been noted.

Perhaps at this point it would be well to point out some of the most common
sanitary defects vyhich we have noted with a view to correcting them prior to inspec-
tion.

(a) Lack of adequate toilet facilities.

(b) Lack of sanitary tov;elE, soap dispensers and hot and cold water facilities
for hand-viashing.

(c) Packing rooms not effectively protected against access by flies.

(d) Shipping containers not kept in dust-proof covering and filled without
proper washing.

(e) Employees whose hands come in direct contact with -ysters in packing, with
hands less than "scrupulously clean" as required.

(f) Employees in washing and packing rooms not in possession of up-to-date
health cards.

(g) Stored shipping containers dusty and dirty and unprotected from insect,
rat, and bird contanination.

(h) Domestic animals permitted in ['acking room and in storage rooms.

(i) Evidence of rat and mouse contamination.

These exceptions are not general, neither are all found in any one plant. The
fact that they have been recorded is offered solely for your information in order
that their existence if noted may be corrected.

Follo?;ing a satisfactory sanitary inspection or reinspection, the name of the
firm is listed as approved and purchasing agencies for the armed forces notified of
such approval. The vendor then becomes eligible to furnish the subject commodity.

On the placing of an order with an approved firm a request for inspection with
a copy of the purchase instrument is made by the purchasing agency in our office.
An inspector is then assigned v;ho su^jervises the shucking, washing and packing of the
product at the contractor's plant. Simultaneously he carries out the last two phases
of inspection, - supervision of preparation ruid compliance with purchase conditions.
The item packed, sealed and stored properly for shipment is stamped with the offi-
cial stamp of the U. S. Army Veterinary Corps, indicated that all type, class and
grade requirements have been met. At destination a further inspection for soundness

Woodruff's Address— Page 3

and quantity is made before final acceptance.

The experience of last season indicates that the entire inspection procedure
is sound and practical. Rejections at source. v;erc practically nil and only tv/o re-
jections at destination vrero recorded for oysters originating at the states of Penn-
sylvania, Maryland and Virginia. This excellent record in the case of a perishable
food v/as due, in my opinion, as much to the painstaking care and cooperation offered
by the shippers, as to the actual inspection.

■ We have found the oyster industry as a whole to be highly cooperative and en-
tirely ethical as business men.

You are concerned vfith the production and shipping of an extremely valuable
foodstuff which the Armed Forces will require in greater and greater quantities.
The oyster with its nutritive value, its palatability, its freedom from waste and
the apparent ease of transportation without spoilage has become an Army institution.
We lock forv/ard to a season of greater production and greater recognition by the Ser-
vice of this food item.

National Shellfisheries Associr.tion, Philadelphia Meeting, June 19A3

STMDARD METilODo OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION

for the
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SHELLFISH ^^^

C. A. Perry, D.Sc, Chief

Bm-eau of Bacteriology
State Department of Health

Baltimore , Maryian.l

Due to the inability of the Chairman of the Committee on Standard Methods for
the Bacteriological Examination of Shellfish, Mr. James Gibbard, Department of Pen-
sions and National Health of Ottawa, Ontario, to discuss the new procedure, the wri-
ter attempted to briefly outline and criticize the main features of the new ii?)ort.

The present procedure was approved by the Committee on Research and Standards
of the American Public Health Association at a meeting in St. Louis, Missouri, on
October 29th, 19^2, subject to certain minor changes. These changes were made by
the Chairman and the report vms published in the May 19A3 issue of the American
Journal of Public Health. The report had previously been approved, after discussion,
at a joint meeting of the Laboratory and Sanitary Engineering Sections of the Ameri-
can Public Health Association meeting in Atlantic City on October 15, 19A1.

The final report represents six revisions since the first was dravm up in De-
cember, 1935. Every effort has been made to sound out the opinion of all those in-
terested in the report. The final report represents the collective judgment of this
group so far as v/as possible. The chief objective of the new report has been to pro-
vide bacteriological methods v/hich v^rill indicate, vfith reasonable reliability, whe-
ther or not oysters and other mollusks have been dangerously polluted from fecal ma-
terial. A second objective has been to determine v;hether or not such shellfish have
been handled in a sanitary manner. For the first purpose it is necessary to use as
an indicator an organism of unquestionable fecal origin. Escherichia coli is the
obvious organism to use for this purpose. No one questions the fecal character of
E. coli . The fecal origin of most other coliform bacteria, on the other hand, is
open to much controversy while the common coliform of oysters and certain other shell-
fish, Aerobacter cloacae , is definitely not a fecal organism. This coliform organ-
ism can be found only occasionally in fresh feces from man and other mammals and then
in all probability as an adventitious intestinal bacterixim. It is chiefly an extra-
fecal sapophytic organism which grows wherever a suitable supply of organic matter is
present such as in the slime of shell oysters, the slime of shucked oysters, in bar-
nacles and in waters containing a certain amount of organic matter. A temperatxire
above 60<^F. is usually associated vfith such proliferation. The finding of E. coli in
oysters and other mollusks may rightly be considered to indicate potential fecal pol-
lution and the danger may be estimated to be roughly in proportion to the number of
E. coli present. The presence of excessive numbers of A. cloacae may be construed to
indicate that the shellfish have been subject to warm v/eather conditions or to im-
proper handling. Excessive numbers of A. cloacae may be found in shell oysters when
the temperature of the viater over their natural beds exceeds 60°F. A. cloacae and
other coliform bacteria may also multiply in the oysters v;hile held in storage if the
temperature is above 60 F. They may multiply in the slime on utensils in shucking
houses or in the shucked oysters during transit from the jxicker to a dealer or custo-
mer. Excessive numbers may, therefore, represent failure to properly clean equipment
or failure to refrigerate the oysters constantly. The use of the coliform group has,

* Presented at joint annual convention of The National Shellfisheries Assoc, and
the Oyster Growers & Dealers Assoc, of North America Inc., at the Benjamin Franklin
Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa., June 3, 19A3.

Perry's Address—Page 2

therefore, been continued in the nev; procedure as an indication of possible extra-
fecal contami.nation or Ir-.ck of proper handlinc of the product. The same purpose is '
served, and possibly better, by a colony ccvunt. The colony count method has also
been included in the new procedure as a means to determine whether or not shellfish
have been properly handled.

There are various other changes in the new procedure, such as the use of "most
probable numbers" (M.P.N.) to express the num'.ior of bacteria belonging to the coli-
form group. This replaces the old "score" method which represents the number of
bacteria of the coliform group in 5 cc. of water or an equivalent amount of the shell-
fish. The M.P.M. expresses the number pur 100 cc. and is more accurate. There are
other changes in the nevv' procedure such as the use of the whole shellfish rather than
the shell liquor. One of the important technical changes is the use of a simple con-
firmation method (gas in brilliant green lactose bile medium) for bacteria of the
coliform group. This is the method prescribed in the current edition of Standard
Methods of fteter Analysis of the American Public Health Association. There are cer-
tain other technical changes or changes in records which v/ould not be particularly
interesting to this group.

It should be borne in mind that all standard procedures are constantly being im-
proved and revised. The nevf procedure for the bacteriological examination of shell-
fish represents a great step forward particularly in providing for the use of E. coll .
The methods for determining E. coli , however, are more involved than the simple con-
firmatory test (gas in brilliant green lactose bile medium) for bacteria of the coli-
form group. An effort has already been made to find such a comparatively simple me-
dium for E. coli . A nev/ medium, for instance, has been proposed which promises to
make the isolation of E. coli just as simple at a temperature of 4-5 -S^C. The evalua-
tion of such a ne¥»- method requires time. Even though the .method is an excellent one,
it requires time for laboratory workers to learn how to use it skillfully'. The chief
difficulty in evaluating the present procedure has been the very limited number of
laboratories which have had the facilities or the interest to critically test proposed
methods. We should not consider the present methods as in any final stage of perfec-
tion. It is immensely important that at least a fe;? laboratories which retain highly
qualified bacteriologists, use their workers to help develop and evaluate nev;er methods

None-the-less, the new procedure represents an important step forward and should
make the bacteriological examination of shellfish of real value to both the sanitary
officer and the oyster grower. For the first it vdll provide a reasonably accurate
means of detecting significant fecal contamination and faults in handling. For the
oyster grovrer, it should prevent condemnation of stock Vv'hich might be judged to be
dangerously polluted on the basis of coliform bacteria, particularly of the A. cloacae
type, but which on the basis of the absence of E. coli would be shovm not to be pol-
luted. Both considerations are, of course, immensely important to all concerned.
There have been sincere differences of opinion among scientific v;orkers as to the
sanitary significance of different coliform organisms. In eight years, however, we
have all had a chance to evaluate these differences of shellfish by both the Sanitary
Engineers and the Laboratory Section of the j\merican Public Health Association and
acceptance by the Committee on Research and Standards, indicates that' a large majority
are satisfied with the objectives of this nev; procedure.

Z3C

LIBRA EY OS'
«• S. PTpr-T ti-t-" "■ -,-■-,

OXIi\'):(D, AfD.

2301

Proc. NSA (Conv. Add.) 1943,1944,1946
194- , 1948